Notes

5/ The Importance Of Image and Competence For Roles

SORT OUT THIS WHOLE SECTION, REORDER AND COMPARE WITH WOLF 1998 AND RACE

ADD IN TEXT FROM ESSENTIAL SRV

ADD IN ETCOFF ON BEAUTY

ADD FROM THE PRESENTATION OF SELF IN EVERYDAY LIFE

ADD FROM FRAME ANALYSIS

ADD FROM VISUAL PERSUASION

ADD FROM MEDIA SEMIOTICS

Semiotics

ADD FROM SEMIOTICS

Semiotics

From Semiotics For Beginners Paul Cobley and Litza Jansz

Semiotics comes from a Greek root- semeiotkos- an interpreter of signs.

Natural signs vs. Conventional signs- the difference between the cries of animals and the speech of humans- intentionality.

Saussure- Signifier vs. Signified- e.g. sound of vocal cords vs. the mental concept.

CS Peirce - triadic theory of the sign- Representamen (the sign in itself), Object, Interpretant (the sign in the mind)

Denotation vs. Connotative - direct sign vs. implied signs

Note on Barthes (Roland Barthes Mythologies, London Vintage 1996)- ‘The Romans in Films’ togas, sandals, swords plus fringes

Examples of Myths from Cobley and Jansz

· Nine out of ten cats prefer fish

· Sean Connery was the best James Bond

· Lesbians are Ugly

· Surgery Saves Lives

· Supermarkets make life easier

· Meat makes you strong

· Homosexuality is unnatural

· Cars are better than Public Transport

‘The Rhetoric of Image, Barthes- Italian pasta Panzani- Linguistic Message (the words in the ad), Coded Iconic Message (the connotations), Non-Coded Icon (denotations in the photo).

Ad on page 48

list of connotations:

Freshness (of natural ingredients as well as, by association, packaged ones)

A return from the market

A trawl (string bag = fishing net)

A still life

Italianicity (the tri-coloured hues of the natural ingredients and the packet labels = Italian flag

Claude Levi-Strauss

Researches on totemism, ritual, kinship patterns, and myth- demonstrates a correlation between cultural artefacts which is analogous to relations within the language.

ADD FROM REPRESENTATION

TEXT BELOW INCLUDES DUPLICATIONS- READ THROUGH AND SORT OUT

TRY TO DIVIDE INTO SECTIONS AND PUT INTO A BETTER ORDER AS WELL AS INTEGRATE THE ABOVE NEW INFORMATION

5.1 Image

Essential SRV: Image

· Image is used here to mean the total impression of a person or object. At its most basic level, image may be seen as the collection of signs and symbols voluntarily or involuntarily placed around a person or object. Examples of such signs and symbols are- immediate bodily shape, clothing, belongings, physical environment, other people present, behaviours engaged in. The physical existence of these signs has no meaning in itself. They only gain meaning from the interpretations put on these signs by people who observe them. These interpretations are influenced by the interpreters beliefs and experiences (especially by their value system.)

· So image is a complex transfer of information (often unconscious) between what is actually there (the person or object and all the people and things around it) to the person observing the image. This transfer of information is heavily influenced by the value system and expectations of that person.

Why Image Is Important

· Image is important because we use it as a shorthand for understanding what is going on around us. If we had to make conscious decisions about what was happening in every new situation, we would suffer from continual information overload. We use image as a method of coping with the world.

· Because we are so used to this method of making decisions, we have become unaware of it. Usually this unconscious reaction is useful or just neutral. However, it can heavily influence how we react to devalued groups. It may give us permission to do bad things to them.

How Images Are Conveyed

· Images are not only visual, they may involve any sense. For instance, the perception of the stale urine or faeces or body odour would add to image. How peaceful or noisy the environment is will add to overall image. How comfortable furniture feels will do the same. All senses may be involved.

· Images may be transmitted voluntarily or unconsciously by individuals or groups.

Image Transference

· Image may be transmitted from one object or thing to another merely by its physical proximity to it. This is called Image Juxtaposition. This is used in advertising, where for instance toilet paper is given a positive and cuddly image by placing it in close proximity to a puppy. Negative images can also be transferred in this way, for instance by placing an old-peoples’ home next to an undertaker.

· Images may be transmitted purely by association- image transference. Image may be transferred between individuals- if a person is mixing with people who display a certain image, but does not display that image their-self, they are still likely to be perceived as having the image of the group.

· Placing someone in a different environment may change the image projected.

· Names and other words used about a person may radically alter the image perceived.

How People May Be Given A Negative Image

· Placing services to people in poorly valued areas.

· Placing together people with differing negative images.

· Use of lower value methods, activities or structures.

· Using comical or bizarre names and labels.

· Giving services comical or bizarre names.

· Neglecting people’s personal appearance.

· Using low-value funds to provide services.

· ‘Marking’ people with clothing, body marks etc..

How Images May Determine Roles

· Image is a very important factor in promoting and defending roles. The actual appearance of someone may determine whether you are able to easily let that person perform a given role.

· People are more likely to trust and believe a doctor in their surgery if they are wearing sensible clothing and behaving in a professional manner. If a doctor saw you in a clinic dressed in gardening clothes and intermittently singing snatches from old musicals, their image would be severely impaired and they would have difficulty filling the role of doctor.

· Similarly if a person with a mental health problem dresses and acts bizarrely, it may make it difficult, or impossible, for them to attain the valued roles of neighbour, friend, tenant, customer etc.

A Note On Goffman’s ‘Stigma’

NOT ALL OF THIS SECTION NECESSARILY BELONGS WITH IMAGE BUT I FELT THAT A PRECIS OF THE BOOK WAS OF USE AND IN TIME I WILL INTEGRATE IT INTO APPROPRIATE SECTIONS

Erving Goffman’s 1963 treatment of the subject is both historic and essential. It is a book that should be read and understood by anyone interested in Devaluation and Social Role Valorisation.

Contents:

Chapter 1 Stigma and Social Identity

Preliminary Conceptions, The Own and The Wise, Moral Career

Chapter 2 Information Control and Personal Identity

The Discredited and the Discreditable, Social Information,, Visibility, Personal Identity, Biography, Biographical Others, Passing, Techniques of Information Control, Covering

Chapter 3 Group Alignment and Ego Identity

Ambivalence, Professional Presentations, In-group Alignments, Out- Group Alignments, The Politics of Identity

Chapter 4 The Self and Its Other

Deviations and Norms, The Normal Deviant, Stigma and Reality

Chapter 5 Deviations and Deviance

Goffman initially defines Stigma as ‘the situation of the individual who is disqualified from full social acceptance.’

He bases his research on various sociologists and psychologists- Lemert and Wright in particular.

He describes three types of Stigma-

‘First there are the abominations of the body- the various physical deformities. Next there are blemishes of individual character perceived as weak will, domineering or unnatural passions, treacherous and rigid beliefs, and dishonesty, these being inferred from a known record of, for example, mental disorder, imprisonment, addiction, alcoholism, homosexuality, unemployment, suicidal attempts, and radical political behaviour. Finally, there are the tribal stigma of race, nation and religion, these being stigma that can be transmitted through lineages and equally contaminate all members of the family.’

Interestingly for the history of SRV in Normalisation, he refers to non-stigmatised people as ‘normals’.

He points out a tendency to construct a gestalt of disability- shouting at the blind as if they were deaf etc.- generalising a specific impairment to global disability.

He says:

‘The notion of ‘normal human being’ may have its source in the medical approach to humanity or in the

tendency of large-scale bureaucratic organizations, such as the nation state, to treat all members in some respect as equals.’

He proposes a role revalorising procedure for overcoming stigma:

‘The stigmatized individual can also attempt to correct his condition indirectly by devoting much private effort to the mastery of areas of activity ordinarily felt to be closed on incidental and physical grounds to one with his shortcoming. This is illustrated by the lame person who learns or re-learns to swim, ride, play tennis, or fly an airplane, or the blind person who becomes expert at skiing and mountain climbing.’

He talks of Acceptance:

The central feature of the stigmatized individual’s situation in life can now be stated. It is a question of what is often, if vaguely called ‘acceptance’. Those who have dealings with him fail to accord him the respect and regard which the un-contaminated aspects of his social identity have led him to anticipate extending, and have led him to anticipate receiving; he echoes this denial by finding that some of his attributes warrant it.’

He examines the differences that can occur with interpretation of behaviour when the acts are accompanied by stigma:

‘Ex-mental patients, for example, are sometimes afraid to engage in sharp interchanges with spouse or employer because of what a show of emotion might be taken as a sign of.’

He quotes LA Dexter ‘A Social Theory of Mental Deficiency

‘It also happens that if a person of low intellectual ability gets into some sort of trouble the difficulty is more or less automatically attributed to ‘mental defect’ whereas if a person of ‘normal intelligence’ gets into a similar difficulty, it is not regarded as symptomatic of anything in particular.’

The Own and the Wise

The Moral Career:

‘Persons who have a particular stigma tend to have similar learning experiences regarding their plight, and similar changes in conception of self- a similar ‘moral career’ that is both cause and effect of commitment to a similar sequence of personal adjustments.’

Personal Identification is covered and has useful information- Biography and Claimed Identity- take notes for future use.

In Biographical Others he deals with acquaitanceship and personal knowing- useful for two of the themes- Interpersonal Identification and Integration and Participation.

He deals with ‘passing’- hiding stigma.

He deals with a separate phenomena- ‘covering’- minimising stigma.

There is further valuable information in the chapter ‘Group Alignment an Ego Identity’ that needs to be summarised and integrated into this text.

Other information is included in the last two chapters which I have not had time to read properly-review later.

From Indiana Advanced SRV 1999

The Only Language Issue is whether a language practice affects a party’s perceived social value, e.g. via:

1. Role messages conveyed about a party

2. Image messages about a party

3. (Other) value messages conveyed about a party, e.g. valued or devalued identity

‘Language’ about people and conditions includes:

Source of communication

Content or message of a communication:

About one party to another party

To a party, to the degree it impacts on other perceivers

Form or medium of the communication

Rules

Veridicality

Content Categories of Language Communication about people that are especially apt to communicate about their social value:

How people are addressed or referred to, e.g. via names, designations, appellations, epithets

Names given to human conditions or states

Tonality of voice in speaking to or about a party

Names, acronyms and logos of organsations/agencies/administrative bodies seen as associated with a paty or condition, or as representing that party or condition

Names or acronyms and logos of funding categories that support a party, or a service to a party

Names or Acronyms of service programs and activities

Names/titles of servers/helpers/relaters

Names of service settings, including their locations

Form or Medium of a Communication can be:

Spoken

Written

So-called body language:

Conscious e.g. signs made

Unconscious e.g. affect displayed, gestures

(Other) visual, e.g. painting, cartoon, film, tenor.

5.1.1 Defining Image

write

5.1.2 Using Semiotics

write

5.1.3 The World of Advertising

write

The Importance Of Image In Advertising

Branding

5.1.4 How The Above Considerations Apply Negatively To Devalued People

write

distribute to above

Why Image Is Important

How Images Are Conveyed

· Images may be transmitted voluntarily or unconsciously by individuals or groups.

Image Transference

· Placing someone in a different environment may change the image projected.

· Names and other words used about a person may radically alter the image perceived.

How People May Be Given A Negative Image

· Placing services to people in poorly valued areas.

· Placing together people with differing negative images.

· Use of lower value methods, activities or structures.

· Using comical or bizarre names and labels.

· Giving services comical or bizarre names.

· Neglecting people’s personal appearance.

· Using low-value funds to provide services.

· ‘Marking’ people with clothing, body marks

How Images May Determine Roles

· Image is a very important factor in promoting and defending roles. The actual appearance of someone may determine whether you are able to easily let that person perform a given role.

Image

· Image is used here in the sense of the total impression of an object or person. Person-to-person imagery has two parts- the actual image projected (consciously or unconsciously) by the person transmitting the image, and the received image, interpreted (consciously or unconsciously) by the person receiving the image. The actual value of images are not constant, but vary over geographical and historical distance. Positive image in one place may be negative image in another. Similarly for time. Image is culture dependent.

Image Juxtaposition

· Placing images (whether positive or negative) close to objects or people is called image juxtaposition.

· Things or people seen together are thought of as close to each other in both space and in association. Think of the sayings ‘Birds of a feather flock together’ or ‘Give a dog a bad name’, ‘Mud sticks’, ‘It only takes. one rotten apple in a barrel’.

· Now consider which of the lists we made of positive advertising images and their opposites; consider which list most closely describe the image of the surroundings of people, or the people themselves, that you or your service work for. These are the images that are being attached to those people-at-risk.

Image Transference

· Advertisers use the positive images as part of what is called image transference. This is a method of placing a neutral product close to objects or people that have a high perceived value. This results in the positive images transferring to the neutral product.

· Image transference is used by advertisers to transfer positive feelings that people have about positive images, competencies and roles, to neutral products.

· They spend millions of pounds a year to do this. They are hard-nosed businessmen. If it did not work, then they would not waste their money.

· If our services are surrounded by negative images, low competencies, and reduced expectations, then image transference will work in the same way, except that it will result in the transfer of negative images to users of our services. Trigger Effects

· Sometimes image transference is so complete that only a single sound or sight will trigger a thought about a product.

Borrowed Interest

· This is a concept from advertising. This is where, for instance, a fluffy puppy is juxtaposed with toilet tissue, implying softness and acceptability (it can be difficult to sell toilet tissue by direct means!). The public has become so used to this manner of communication that they are increasingly educated in unconsciously associating borrowed interest in the print and broadcast media.

Consider The Following Advertising Symbols

· Toucan

· Works Wonders

· Hello Boys

· Genius

· Coffee Beans being shaken

· Golden Arches

· Marlboro Ads

· Benson and Hedges

· Silk Cut

· Simple triggers such as these are intended to cause immediate and complex positive thoughts.

· Similarly, very simple triggers caused by images surrounding people-at-risk will lead to immediate and complex negative thoughts.

Branding

· Branding means marking an object or a person in some way that makes it obvious that it is part of a class.

· Companies talk of Brands and Brand Images.

· Cowboys branded cattle to show which ranch they belonged to. Convicts were branded to indicate they were felons. Concentration Camp victims were branded with a number. This was to identify members of a group, and was used to avoid escape or assist re-capture.

· Human services can be said to brand service users if they mark them in some way to ensure that they are obviously a part of a class. This class is usually a socially devalued one.

· People-at-risk can be branded by clothing, learned or caused behaviours, groupings, facilities used, people associated with and by many other methods.

· Branding of people-at-risk usually leads to poorer life outcomes.

Common Prestigious Names/Images Used By Business Firms

Value Power Individuality Proximity Unification

Number One Max Personal Local United

First Turbo Direct National Together

Best Speedo Lone European Union

Premier Torque Individual County Collective

Specialist 4 X 4 Particular Mobile Allied

Finest High Family Doorstep

Authorised Full

Technik Potential

Perfection Force

Great

Fresh

High Class

Professional

Executive

Budget

Common Examples Of Consciously Attached Positive Image and Symbol Association

· Photo of Politician superimposed on National Flag

· Bottle of Rum and Woman in a Wet-suit

· Cigarette and Racing Car

· Alcopops and youth culture images

· Person and Important Building (House of Commons, Westminster Abbey) in background

· Politician and a Workplace

· German Beers and Purity

· Guinness and the Harp

· Fake ‘Irish’ Beer

· New Housing Estates and Gentrified Names and Images

· Whisky and the White Horse

· Vodka and Symbols of Purity

· Perfumes and Sexual Images

· Consider the image consultants for the New Labour party- clean shaven, light coloured suits, tidy short haircuts, versus Old Labour Imagery- trade unions, tweed jackets, beer and sandwiches, beards etc.

Common Examples of (Un)consciously Attached Negative Image and Symbol Association With People-at-Risk

· Rubbish and Waste

· Old (Re-used) buildings

· Childish surroundings

· Low value surroundings

· Low safety surroundings

· Low competence

· Time wasting

· Life wasting

· Death or Dying

· Isolation

· Un-loved

· Un-worthy

· Sick

· Unnatural

· Threat

These are the ‘brands’ that we are attaching to people-at-risk.

What Does This Branding Of People-At-Risk Lead To?

· If this was an advertising campaign for people-at-risk, we would have to assume that what the commissioning body for the campaign wanted was for people-at-risk to be avoided, disdained, damaged and possibly even destroyed.

· SRV does not say that this is what service providers consciously intend, but it does suggest that there is an unconscious negative motivation that leads to this.

· Unfortunately, it is just as destructive when caused by unconscious motivation as by conscious motivation.

First Impressions Count

· Forming impressions is an automatic act. We often make quick judgements about people or situations on minimal initial information. Very little negative information is required to form a negative impression. Negative impressions are formed quickly and take a great deal of contrary positive evidence to counteract the initial impressions

Characteristics (Images) Or Identities For Which People Are Likely To Be Devalued

· Not looking or acting like the image and expectation of ‘real’ or ‘full’ humans. For instance: severely physically mutilated or deformed, racially different people (look at the description of Blacks in pre-Mandela South Africa or in the American South pre-1950). (Non-human Image)

· Failing to reciprocate relationships. (Non-responsive Image)

· Being Perceived to deliberately and habitually violate or seek to destroy major societal value structures. For instance: Offenders, Homeless, Drug and Alcohol Abusers, Political Activists. (Criminal/Offending Image)

· Being seen as a great danger. For example assault, contagion, prisoners, mental patients, paedophiles, people with AIDS or HIV. (Danger Image)

· Being seen as disproportionately burdensome, demanding, or an obstacle to others desired ends. For example: elderly dependent people, severely disabled children, patients costing more than their insurance or the state can bear. This is particularly a problem with the elderly with a fear of being a burden in their own family- devaluation can occur in the family. (Burden Image)

· Being in violation of multiple values and valued images. For example: A homeless alcoholic with AIDS.

Common Ways We Mark And Give Deviant Images To People-At-Risk Of Devaluation

1/ Putting services to people-at-risk into value tainted areas.

2/ Placing people-at-risk with one negative image close to people-at-risk with another negative image.

3/ Using value-impairing methods, activities and structures to people-at-risk of devaluation.

4/ Giving people-at-risk comical, bizarre or negative names and labels.

5/ Giving services for people-at-risk comical, bizarre, deviancy-imaged names, or over-stressing, by size or other method, negative imagery.

6/ Neglecting personal appearance imagery of people-at-risk.

7/ Funding services with image-tainted monies or de-valuing appeals. Charity Funding.

8/ Marking people-at-risk in distinguishing ways- body marks, clothing, dwellings, passports, armbands, branding.

A SUMMARY OF PROBLEMS OF CHARITIES RUNNING HOMES AND DAY SERVICES NEEDS TO BE ADDED SOMEWHERE. ??HERE.

Image Management

· Some people may deny that poor image can have a negative effect or deny the fact that image management may have a positive effect. However, research shows that image does have a major effect on the way people are treated.

· Specifically, women who dress in a professional manner (suit or dress and subdued jewellery) are evaluated more favourably for management positions than women who dress in a more traditional, feminine manner. Wearing glasses increases the assessment of intelligence, and beards for men (in the USA at least!) and long hair for women reduce the impression of intelligence. It should also be noted that job applicants who emit high levels of non-verbal cues - persons who smile, nod, and lean forward during an interview are assessed more positively than those the who do not emit such positive non- verbal cues. You should consider also what import this finding has for those people who are learning disabled, mentally ill, or physically disabled, and because of this have difficulty in emitting appropriate non- verbal cues.

FIRST IMPRESSIONS AT INTERVIEWS. PLUS PERCENTAGE OF IMAGE/CONTENT IN IMPRESSIONS.

BOY NAMED SUE ETC..

The Importance Of Personal Names

· It has been pointed out to me by Tony Wainwright that there is research to show that the names of children can be predictive of differential performance, but we are not sure of the reference for this. For instance, children named Claude, Spike, Arbuthnot, Tyson might be treated very differently, have different images and develop different skills purely because of the possession of those names and the images that go with them.

Charity Advertising Imagery

· It is useful to look at the images promoted by charities raising funds for people-at-risk. Many of these images are at the forefront of the branding of these people. The MENCAP crying child, the use of Dennis the Menace by SCOPE, and various campaigns by other disability organisations are fruitful sources for conscious and unconscious image creation and transfer. This will be covered in depth later.

Nazi Propaganda And The Creation Of Negative Imagery

· It is interesting and terrifying to look at the image creation and transfer that took place in the devaluing of certain groups of people in Nazi Germany. This is detailed in several books and articles on the subject.

The Importance Of Media Generated Imagery

· The various published media (Newspapers, magazines, radio and television) are responsible for the generation, attachment and amplification of a great deal of negative imagery to people-at-risk.

An Exercise In Advertising

· A gentle approach to the importance of image and competency in social affairs.

· Think of the images and activities that you see in advertising around you.

· Who are the people that advertisers use?

· What are they seen doing?

· Why do advertisers use these images and why do they spend so much money on it?

· What happens when poor images are used?

· What is the opposite of these attributes?

Previous Results

Youthful Aged

Beautiful Deformed

Healthy Sick

Confident Insecure, Shy

Rich Poor

Well Dressed Scruffy, Drab, Out-of-Fashion

Independent Dependant

Popular Ignored

Successful Failure

Valued Despised

Competent Unable, Incapable, Inept

Sexually Attractive Asexual/ Sexual Threat/Repulsive

Active Passive

Educated Thick

White Black

Middle-class Underclass

Employed Workless

In relationships Alone

Free Restricted

New Old/Used

Natural Un-natural

Fun Boring

Gender Appropriate Sexually Deviant

Mobile Limited

Graceful Awkward

Names Found In Human Services

· Rehab Unit sited on old Laburnum Farm (Laburnum is a tree with deadly seed pods used by people attempting suicide) . Laburnum Unit for LD Challenging behaviour at Teignmouth, Devon.

· Barrow Hospital (Barrow means a burial mound)

· Eventide Rest-home

· Babbling Brook- speech therapy centre

· Hope Haven (a custodial facility)

· Madden Zone Center (Service for People with Mental Disorder) . Madden Street as only approach to LD Service in Stonehouse, Plymouth.

· Battery State Hospital (for the mentally disordered and learning disabled)

· Battery Street Flats (For homeless women who may have suffered domestic violence)

· Whipper Home for abused children

· Toomey-Abbott Towers (High Rise Residence for the Elderly)

· Freezer’s Personal Care Home (Nursing Home for the Elderly)

· Golden Opportunity Convalescent Home (for the dying)

· St Judes Hospital (for the handicapped- St Jude is the patron saint of Lost Causes)

· Units/wards named after inanimate objects-flowers/trees/animals

· Nomony (Club for disadvantaged families- No Money)

· St Francis (Nursing Home for the elderly. St Francis was connected with Animals)

· Bahr Treatment Center (for alcoholics)

· Antoine Graves Home (for the Elderly)

· Wingbat Sanitarium in Chicago

· Seven Sorrows of Our Sorrowful Mother Infant’s Home

· Burden Center for the Aging NYC

· Eric Burdon Community

· Moran House, Moran Place, Westchester NY-home for the learning disabled

· Beta House for people with learning disability- Brave New World Aldous Huxley- Alpha Beta Gamma and Delta eugenically determined people. Also Bêta means beast, blockhead in French.

· GAMA (see note above) is Gloucestershire Association For Mental Health

· Group home and Special School on Clod Lane in Lancashire

· Deadend Orphanage, Chicago

· Farm Lane residential home for people with learning disability in Plymouth UK

· Bleak House, Massachusetts - community residence, Bleak House, Winnipeg, Manitoba -senior citizen day centre

· Study Group on history of mental health disorders called itself the Luna Circle- Canada

· Bittersweet Farms- residential program for autistic adults

· Bananas Child Care Referral Agency in Oakland California

· Resurrection Nursing Pavilion, Borman Hall, St Peter Villa Nursing Home

· Gothic Villas Nursing Home for the Elderly, Clevedon, North Somerset

· The Parapets Nursing Home, Plymouth, UK

· Willows Units in Plymouth and Torbay- for people with LD- why choose the ‘weeping’ tree- conveys sadness.

· Bethany as Christ’s last place before crucifixion- don’t know location- CHECK

· Chiron Day Service- Chiron was one of the guardians of the sixth level of hell in Dante’s inferno.

· LD Service in Nuttall Street in Hackney in East London.

· EMU unit- an adult acute psychiatric unit in Torbay - named after Edith Morgan but sounding like a silly bird, was renamed Haytor (Hater) unit 1999 after the most difficult Tor (mountain peak) to climb on Dartmoor.

· Folly Court is a residence for people with severe mental illness in Stroud, Gloucestershire. Folly=Foolish.

· Botchall House- halfway house at Langdon Hospital.

Notes below.

INSERT SOMEWHERE THE MOLLY OWEN (TAVISTOCK) AND JOEY DEACON STORIES.

First Impressions Count

5.2 Competence

Essential SRV: Competence

· Competence may be seen as having adequate knowledge and behaviours to perform a certain task.

Why Competence Is Important

· Because competence is required for task performance, and because many roles require certain tasks to be adequately performed, competence can support role acquisition, performance and retention.

How Are Competencies Gained

· Although it is possible to directly teach competency, most learning of competency takes place less formally. People will learn by repetition or modelling other competencies observed. Much of this process is unconscious. It is possible to learn bad as well as good competencies. If people are denied good role models or instructors, valuable competencies may not be gained.

CHECK FROM ORIGINAL

ADD FROM VARIOUS SOURCES ON COMPETENCE AND TRANSFER material FROM THEMES

EXPAND WITH EXAMPLES

ADD IN SUB-TITLES

· Competence may be seen as having adequate knowledge and behaviours to perform a certain task.

Why Competence Is Important

· Because competence is required for task performance, and because many roles require certain tasks to be adequately performed, competence can support role acquisition, performance and retention.

How Are Competencies Gained

Why Is Competence Important?

· Competence is highly valued in our society.

· Competence achievement is seen as a natural and life-long method of personal growth.

· The more competent someone is seen to be, the higher social value is likely to be placed on that person.

· Additionally, society often rewards high competence with high income and low competence with low income.

· Competencies are additive- each extra competence has a multiplicative effect; conversely, loss of one of a few competencies has a disastrously multiplicative negative effect.

· Competence is a good way to avoid dangerous dependency.

· Competence leads towards autonomy.

· Even if a competence that a person has is not immediately relevant to the main needs in his or her life, the mere possession of that competence will enhance that person’s image. Consider, for instance, the recent spate of gaining juggling skills among younger people. The skill of juggling is of no relevance unless one is intending to become a performer; however the production of objects to juggle and starting juggling will lead to people thinking that the person must be clever to be able to do this; they are also likely to be seen as more interesting.

· Competencies are necessary to hold many roles.

· Competencies held tend to encourage positive images of that person to be formed.

This subject is covered in greater depth under one of the Ten Recurrent Themes-

ADD IN MALE SCHIZOPHRENIA STORY AND ALSO HOMELESSNESS LEVELS MALE/FEMALE- LATTER PROBABLY MORE APPROPRIATE TO PERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS THEME.

YOUNG MAN WITH DOWNS CYCLING - ALSO APPROPRIATE TO MODELLING AND CC THEMES

Supporting information about Image and Competence may be found in basic sociology texts. Books dealing with Semiotics go into greater details about how image may affect behaviour.

ADD REFERENCES

The Creatures Time Forgot, Photography and Disability Imagery

David Hevey 1992

London:Routledge TO BIBLIOGRAPHY-done

Mastectomy as image disability

CHAPTER 2 "Social Life or Medical Death"

Impairment: Lacking part or all of a limb, or having a defective limb, organism or mechanism.

Disability: The disadvantage or restriction of activity caused by a contemporary social organisation which takes no or little account of people who have physical impairments and thus excludes them from the mainstream of social activities.

(The Union of the Physically Impaired (1976) quoted in The Politics of Disablement (1990) Michael Oliver, London Macmillan, pp3-40.)

Rain Man

My Left Foot

Born on the Fourth of July

FILMS ABOUT DISABILITY

‘…disability charities have historically been one of the main agents of representational (let alone organisational) oppression of disabled people in their advertising…’

p11

‘Charities …are by far the largest producers and distributors of oppressive impairment/disability imagery…’

p12

’…although they are called ‘disability’ charities, they are in fact impairment charities’ (emphasis in the original.)

p12

‘Within general disability representation, it is clear that it is the impaired body of the disabled person on to which is projected the negative manifestations of that impairment in society: that is, the disability. In this way, characters like Richard III, Frankenstein, Graham Greenes’s Raven, most villains in James Bond films and so on, have their evilness signified by impairment.’

P12

(Raven is the main character in A Gun for Sale, Greene, London, Penguin 1973, First published 1936.)

Oliver suggests in The Politics of Disablement that there are three implicit and historical theories of disability which underlie the ‘Personal Tragedy Theory’ of disability:

1/ Societies dominated by religious or magical ways of thinking, impairment may be

perceived as a punishment from God or from evil magic.

2/ The Liminality Theory- neither sick nor well, dead nor alive, with full humanity in

doubt, neither fish nor fowl, existing in partial isolation from society as undefined, ambiguous people.

3/ The ‘Surplus Population Thesis’ which occurs in societies where economic survival is a constant struggle. So weak, impaired or old people who threaten society by unproductivity are either killed at birth or left to die.

p13

Hevey notes of the above that Oliver’s work, describing the Personal Tragedy Theory as ‘a particular kind of descriptive anthropology which sees societies as , in the final analysis, the embodiment not of social or economic relationships but of thought systems.’

p13.

Finkelstein (ed) ‘Attitudes and Disabled People 1980 World Rehabilitation Fund, New York ORDER

Finkelstein: Three historical phases of disability:

1/ Feudal, pre-industrial revoloution. Produced ‘cripples’ who were not separated from society. No institutions, no special services. Existed at lower end of the economic ladder among the broad oppressed layer of other low-paid workers, the ou-of-work, the mentally ill etc.. No disabled group as such since sytematic social exclusion of impaired people from economic productivity had not yet begun.

2/ With the Industrial Revolution, production lines were geared to able-bodied norms. Phase two proper started with the foundation of the Asylums and Institutions to deal with those made destitute by their impaired labour power. Segregation and dependency went hand in hand. Rise of the Deviancy Manager. Cure or care programmes in an effort to adjust disabled people into labour givers. Service workers now dependent on the disabled for continued employment. Start of the ‘disability paradox’ - the relationship between a person (and his or her impairment) and the state of society (the social restrictions imposed upon the individual.)

3/ Phase three begins with the decline of heavy industry. Society is no longer so dependent on able-bodied people to produce and consequently there may be new opportunities for the disabled people.

p.15-16. Hevey

‘…medical professions, social sciences research, and charity advertising have used and constructed a medical dependency view of disability in which the impairment and the disability are both contained within the body…(whereas)…Oliver and Finkelstein have separated out the bodily impairment from the socially Created disablement.’

p. 16-17

Chapter 3 "The Creatures That Time Forgot" Part 1 Into the Grotto of Charity Advertising"

Critique of Charities and some imagery- none worth quoting.

Chapter 3 "The Creatures That Time Forgot" Part 2 Out of the Grotto."

‘There is no doubt that before the 1980s and early 1990s (when pressures came to be exerted on charities to market competitively) impairment chrity advertising relied, for its portrayal of disabled people, on notions of eugenics ad the eugenic inferiority of disabled people.’

p.30

‘One common feature of charity advertising is that it is almost always in balck and white, while commercial advertising is almost entirely in colour. Charity advertising sells fear, while commercial advertising sells desire. …Cripples are contaminated waste…. Cripples promote a brand not to buy, but to buy your distance from.,

p.35

p.42 he notes that even though much of the costs of campaigns are subsidised by the industry, the costs of the campaign to a charity are rarely ever covered by donations. Essentially the advertising is the branding of disability.

Chapter 9- Towards a disability imagery currency, Part 2 Little Stephen

THIS CHAPTER PHOTOCOPIED AND AVAILABLE

SCAN MARKED PHOTOGRAPHS

Bignell Media Semiotics,

Barthes- Romans in Julius Caesar- Fringes(Romans) and sweating (soldiers, labourers and plotters) as signifiers.

British Army Officers in training at Sandhurst are taught semiotics to help them give information to the media to ensure that reportage will reflect British Army Myths.

1994 Turnover of British Advertising Industry was £770 million according to Campaign- must be a billion by now. 45,000 people employed, one of the four fastest growing industries in 1994.

‘A picture of a beautiful female model in a perfume add is not simply a sign denoting a particular person has been photographed. The picture of the model is also a sign of connotations like youth, slimness, health etc.. Because the sign has these positive connotations, it can work as the signifier for the mythic signified ‘feminine beauty’.’

Williamson 1978:31 Decoding Advertisements: Ideology and Meaning in Advertising, London, Marion Boyars:

‘The technique of advertising is to correlate feelings, moods or attributes to tangible objects, ,linking possible unobtainable things with those that are obtainable, and thus reassuring us that the former are in reach.’

Williamson, op cit p 24- The first function of an advertisement is ‘to create a differentiation between one particular product and others in the same category.’

Cassidy

Environmental Psychology Tony Cassidy1997 Psychology Press Ltd, Hove, East Sussex

Burroughs WJ 1989 Applied environmental psychology. In WL Gregory &WJ Burroughs (eds.) Introduction to Applied Psychology. London: Scott, Foreman and Company:

‘the study of the interrelationships between the physical environment and human behaviour.’

Gifford R 1987 Environmental Psychology: principles and practice, Boston: Allan and Baker:

‘environmental psychology is the study of transactions between individuals and their physical settings’

Cassidy points out that the important link between these two definitions is that the process is seen as reciprocal between the person and the environment.

He points out that both concentrate on the physical environment, noting that Environmental Psychology grew out of architectural psychology. However he points out that it is also important to be aware of the social aspects of the setting- with items such as crowding, personal space and territoriality being important.

For instance, Osmond 1957Function as the basis of psychiatric ward design, Mental Hospitals, 8, 23-30. Sociopetal and Sociofugal designs showed how arranging chairs may inhibit or encourage communication.

Hawthorne Effect- Roethlisberger and Dickson (1939) Management and the Worker, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press. This had a large amount of original research about how the environment affected the worker. It is most often quoted now as The Hawthorne Effect which showed that any change (which was construed as positive) could increase productivity. For instance they showed that increasing the lighting levels increased productivity, as did decreasing lighting levels.

Three important areas of research:

1/ Environmental Perception- how we actually perceive the context in which we live with

its rich interplay of social and physical elements

2/ Environmental Appreciation- the emotional or evaluative element in terms of how we feel about

the environment

3/ Environmental Personality- based on the notion that there may exist stable traits reflected in our

differential responses to different environments.

Reference for Neisser that I need for References and Text is Neisser U 1976 Cognition and Reality- Principles and Implications of Cognitive Psychology, San Francisco, WH Freeman. Constructivist Approach- Neisser- Neisser U, Cognition and Reality,

Psychology of Perception- implications of Top down and bottom up processing. Possibly use optical illusions etc.

Cognitive schemata, blueprints or cognitive maps are compiled and then affect the processing of future perceptions.

Gestalt approach: Kohler, Koffka, Wertheimer. Also use modern Gestalt reference- I think I have a 1980s Penguin on Gestalt.

Barker RG Ecological Psychology- Concepts and Methods for studying the environment of human behaviour. 1968, Stanford CA, Stanford University Press-

Barker concluded that behaviour cannot be separated from its setting, and there tends to be a fit between the behaviour and characteristics of the setting.

He also stated that there knowledge about the behaviour setting is more useful in predicting behaviour than knowledge about the characteristics of the individuals in the setting. In other words there is much more consistency between the individuals in the same behaviour setting than there is within the same individual in different behaviour settings.

Cocktail Party and Set for dinner example from here.

Also from this is under-manning/over-manning of a social setting- origin of example we use already.

Bronfenbrunner U, 1977, The Ecology of Human Development in prospect and retrospect, In H McGurk (ed) Ecological Factors in Human Development, Amsterdam, North Holland-

Nested Systems:

Micro

Exo

Meso

Macro

Good for backing up the four levels of intervention.

Orford J1992, Community Psychology, Chichester, Wiley:

Nature of Social Support: Five types Material, Emotional, Esteem, Informational, Companionship p64

Odours can be a particularly potent stimuli in the evocation of flashbacks in post-traumatic stress disorder Kline NA Rausch JL 1985 Olfactory Precipitants of flashbacks in Post Traumatic Stress Disorder: Case Reports. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry46(9), 383-384.

Other smell and memory:

Engen T 1987 Remembering Odours and their names American Scientist 75(5) 497-503

Schab FR 1990 Odors and Remembrance of Things Past, Journal of Experimental Psychology, Learning, Memory and Cognition 16(4) 648-655

Zhong Y and Gao D 1992 An experimental study of ambient odours and memory performance. Psychological Science, China 1 16-20.

Synott A 1991 The Sociology of Smell, Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology 28(4) 437-459: - indicates that we associate pleasant smells with goodness and bad smells with evil. This is particularly apposite when one considers that the smell of urine, faeces and vomit is almost universally seen as a bad smell- what effect does this have on the perception of clients of facilities which smell thus?

In fact Birley JL 1987 Psychogeriatrics The Smell of success or the odour of chronicity? International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 2(2) 131-134:

identifies smell as one reason why practitioners are disinclined to enter the field of psychogeriatrics.

Baker-Miller Pink- calming

Bull R Stevens J 1981 The effects of facial disfigurement on helping behaviour, Italian Journal of Psychology 8(1) 25-33

Rumsay N Bull R and Gahagan D (1986) A developmental study of children’s stereotyping of facially deformed adults. British Journal of Psychology 77(2) 269-274:

indicate that people tend to move away from someone who is facially disfigured.

Bull R Brooking J 1985 Does marriage influence whether a facially disfigured person is considered physically unattractive? Journal of Psychology 119(2), 163-167:

amelioration by whether the person appears to be married to a facially attractive partner.

Sommer 1976 The End of Imprisonment, New York OUP:

Eight perspectives on imprisonment:

deterrence

incapacitation

reform

rehabilitation

retribution

restitution

re-education

integration

Prison buildings tend to be fortress-like with walls, fences and window bars much stronger than those used to confine even the strongest animals: effect ? more destructive behaviours:

Holley HL Arboleda-Florez JE 1988 Hypernomia and self destructiveness in penal settings International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 11(2) 167-178

Un-referenced quote in Cassidy- In ancient Greece leisure was more valued than work

STILL MUCH NOTE-MAKING TO DO I THINK

Cobley and Jansz

From Semiotics For Beginners Paul Cobley and Litza Jansz

Semiotics comes from a Greek root- semeiotkos- an interpreter of signs.

Natural signs vs. Conventional signs- the difference between the cries of animals and the speech of humans- intentionality.

Saussure- Signifier vs. Signified- e.g. sound of vocal cords vs. the mental concept.

CS Peirce - triadic theory of the sign- Representamen (the sign in itself), Object, Interpretant (the sign in the mind)

Denotation vs. Connotative - direct sign vs. implied signs

Note on Barthes (Roland Barthes Mythologies, London Vintage 1996)- ‘The Romans in Films’ togas, sandals, swords plus fringes

Examples of Myths from Cobley and Jansz

· Nine out of ten cats prefer fish

· Sean Connery was the best James Bond

· Lesbians are Ugly

· Surgery Saves Lives

· Supermarkets make life easier

· Meat makes you strong

· Homosexuality is unnatural

· Cars are better than Public Transport

‘The Rhetoric of Image, Barthes- Italian pasta Panzani- Linguistic Message (the words in the ad), Coded Iconic Message (the connotations), Non-Coded Icon (denotations in the photo).

Ad on page 48

list of connotations:

Freshness (of natural ingredients as well as, by association, packaged ones)

A return from the market

A trawl (string bag = fishing net)

A still life

Italianicity (the tri-coloured hues of the natural ingredients and the packet labels = Italian flag

Claude Levi-Strauss

Researches on totemism, ritual, kinship patterns, and myth- demonstrates a correlation between cultural artefacts which is analogous to relations within the language.

Community Care for Nurses and Caring Professions

Nigel Malin, Jill Manthorpe, Dave Race, Steve Wilmott

Open University Press

Hearts and Minds- SRV, UK Academia…..

Disability and Society August ??Rohhss’s ref

Joseph Fletcher 1972, 1974, 1975, 1977, 1979- 15 indications of personhood.

Primary Frameworks- Natural and Social

Framework- schemata of interpretation

Natural Frameworks- undirected, unoriented, unanimated, unguided, ‘purely physical’. Reducible to more fundamental frameworks- conservation of energy, single, irreversible time. EVENTS

Social Frameworks- provide background understanding, events incorporate will, aim, intelligence, live agency etc.. Actions based standards, motive and intent are involved. DEEDS

All social frameworks involve rules.

Several social frameworks usual being applied at any one time.

Important answer to question ‘What is going on here?’

Five Distinctive Matters p28 et seq

1/ Astounding Complex

2/ Cosmological Interests

3/ Muffings

4/ Fortuitousness

5/ Segregation Issue

Objectificaton: from Good Behaviour, London, Constable and Co 1955, Harold Nicholson

‘The slave dealers, whether those of Delos or the mangones who ran the slave-market by the temple in Rome, would display their wares in the manner of hors-copers, allowing prospective purchasers to examine teeth and muscles of the animals, taking them for little runs to show their paces. Slaves were exhibited for sale in a wooden cage, their feet being smeared with whitewash, and tablets stating price and qualifications hung around their necks.’ P63

Also notes that people being made up by stage cosmeticians, measured by tailors or palpated by physicians resort to object status- they respond to requests to assume various positions, engage only in desultory side talk, but otherwise act how people are supposed to when being merely bodies. Also- haircutting, dentistry.

Henri Bergson Laughter 1911 London, Macmillan and Co- ‘We laugh every time a person gives us the impression of being a thing’ - origin of clown/disability stereotype.

Keys and Keying:

‘…the key, I refer here to the set of conventions by which a given activity, one already meaningful in terms of some primary framework, is transformed into something patterned on this activity but seen by the participants to be something quite else.’

Framing limits- withdrawal of films or TV programmes about similar recent actual events. Similarly obscenity- the making public of what is seen as private.

Contests.

Plays.

Practising.

Designs and Fabrications- not yet noted.

?? Mental Health Matters,

Labelling Mental Illness, Thomas J Scheff in Mental Health Matters, Heller et al, edited from Schizophrenia as Ideology, Schizophrenia Bulletin Fall 1970 15-20.

This is the source for ear scrutinising story.

Further to this it is pointed out that (similar to Goffman in Frame Analysis) there are many assumptions about social interaction that are taken for granted and only noticed in their absence or mis-performing.

For instance posture, facial expression, gestures, content and form of language. Many of these are violated by those labelled as mentally ill.

For instance, speech- grammar, syntax, loudness, pitch, phrasing, aspiration.

Everyday belief of ordinary society member- ‘whatever is, is right.’

Mental Illness as a residual category after theft, prostitution, drunkenness etc. have been exhausted. Previously cast into witchcraft role. Implies that symptoms of mental illness are violations of residual rules.

Labeling theory of Deviance

Scheff 1966 from Being Mentally Ill, Chicago, Aldine

1 Residual rule breaking arises from fundamentally diverse sources (that is, organic, psychological, situations of stress, volitional acts of innovation or defiance).

2/ Relative to the rate of treated mental illness, the rate of unrecorded rsidual rule breaking is extremely high.

3/ Most residual rule braking is ‘denied’ and is of transitory significance’.

4/ Stereotyped imagery of mental disorder is learned in early childhood.

5/ The stereotypes of insanity are continually reaffirmed, inadvertently, in ordinary social interaction.

6/ Labeled deviants may be rewarded for playing the stereotyped deviant role.

7/ Labeled deviants are punished when they attempt to return to conventional roles.

8/ In the crisis occurring when a residual rule breaker is publicly labeled, the deviant is highly suggestible and may accept the label.

9/ Among residual rule breakers, labeling is the single most important cause of careers of residual deviance.

He notes that in some Indian tribes, involuntary trance states that would be stigmatised in our culture are a desirable attribute leading to high status in that society.

Reversing Deviance, Roger Gomm, in Mental Health Matters, ed Heller

Source of Drapetomania- Szasz 1972, The Myth of Mental Illness. Samuel Cartwight MD, LA outlined the symptomatology of a mental disorder called drapetomania - afflicted only Negro slaves and whose major symptom was running away from slavery. Constituted on the belief that slavery was the normal healthy condition for black people. Or query source as Szasz T The Sane Slave: an historical note on the use of medical diagnosis as a justificatory rhetoric, American Journal of Psychotherapy, Vol25(2)

Nineteenth century diagnosis of Nymphomania- often applied to young women of elite families attracted to working class men- Ehrenrich B and English D 1974 Complaints and Disorders, the sexual politics of sickness, Glass Mountain Pamphlets No 2 London, Compendium. Male control of female sexuality.

Kleptomania- Abelson 1974 The Invention of Kleptomania , Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 123-43- originally applied only to rich women who stole what they could easily afford. A label serving the rich and powerful.

Deviancy Amplification- the responses of others can cause the level of performed devaincy to increase. (Cohen S 1973 Folk Devils and moral panics, St Albans, Granada)

Deviancy reversal versus deviancy normalisation. (Cohen S 1973 Living with crime, New Society, 8 Nov 1973 330-333)

Garfinkel H 1956 Conditions of successful degradation ceremonies, American Journal of Sociology, 61, 420-424: ‘elaborate courtroom and medical rituals for conferring a deviant status on people and few such rituals for re-establishing those who have been labelled deviant as thoroughly rehabilitated’ NOW HAVE ARTICLE

Deviancy Normalisation:

1/ Challenge and change the conception of what is normal - the standards against which people are judged as deviant- for instance normalising Hearing Voices or non rationalistic belief systems

2/ Ensure that Iatrogenic effects are minimised

3/ Rectifying the adverse effects that labelling has had on the personalities and capabilities of people who have been treated as mentally ill and deviant.

Romme in this volume for Hearing Voices

Woodward Identity And Difference

Identity is marked by difference- Serbs and Croats

Essentialist and Non-essentialist perspectives on Identity- whether there are clear characteristics of identity or whether there are specific differences. See p11

Classificatory Systems- p 29, us/them, self/other

Emile Durkheim argued that it is through the organisation and ordering of things into classificatory systems that meaning is produced (the Elementary Forms of Religious Life- 1954 London Allen and Unwin 1954) ‘Without symbols, social sentiments could have only a precarious existence’

Leading to the Sacred and Profane- Sacred is set apart, opposition to profane.

Each culture has its own way of classifying the world

Mary Douglas Purity and Danger: an analysis of Pollution and Taboo, London Routledge 1966:

‘…culture, in the sense of public, standardised values of a community, mediates the experience of individuals. It provides in advance some basic categories, a positive pattern in which ideas and values are tidily ordered. And above all, it has authority, since each is induced to assent because of the assent of others.’

Douglas- rituals extend to all aspects of everyday life- preparing food, cleaning up, putting things away.

Claude Lévi-Strauss food (?The Raw and The Cooked) La triangle culinaire, 1965 in English Translation in New Society, 22 Dec 1966, pp937-40

Douglas op cit :

‘…ideas about separating, purifying, demarcating and punishing transgressions have as their main function to impose system on an inherently untidy experience. It is only by exaggerating the difference between within and without, above and below, male and female, for and against that a semblance of order is created.’

Difference, especially its production through binary opposition:

Woodward p 35-36:

‘A feature which is common to most thought systems therefore seems to be a commitment to dualism whereby difference, which is essential to meaning, is expressed in terms of clear oppositions - nature/culture, body/mind.’

Helen Cixous- 1975 ‘Sorties’ in La Jeune Née, Paris, Union Générale d’Editions, 10/12; English Tranlation in Marks E and de Courtviron I, (eds) 1980 New French Feminisms; an anthology, Amherst MA, The University of Massachusetts Press.

‘Thought has always worked by

opposition

Speech/Writing

High/Low

Does this mean something?’

She argues that not only is thought constructed in terms of binary oppositions, but that in these dualisms, one term is valued more than the other.- one is seen as deviant or outside.

Where is she?

Activity/Passivity

Sun/Moon

Culture/Nature

Day/Night

Father/Mother

Head/Heart

Intelligible/Sensitive

Man/Woman.

Identity and Subjectivity:

p39

The positions which we take up and identify with constitute our identities.

Louis Althusser 1971 Lenin and Philosophy, and other Essays, London, New Left Books- suggests Interpellation is the way in which subjects are recruited into subject positions by recognising themselves - ‘yes, that’s me’ - conscious and unconscious, mainly unconscious. He also stresses the role of ideologies in reproducing social relations through institutional rituals and practices as well as through force and coercion.

Freud, suggests that the unconscious does not obey the laws of the conscious rational mind. However, Lacan 1977 Ecrits: a Selection, London Tavistock suggests that the unconscious is structured like a language.

Lacan- childs internalisation of itself, mirror stage folows the imaginery stage see p 44.

He argues that subjectivity is split and illusory- so the subject longs for identification with powerful and significant outside figures.

The Body and Difference p 65

embodiment has various sociological meanings

people’s actions are socially structured in different ways

Modern Technology has given us unprecedented control over our bodies.- reproduction, genetic engineering, plastic surgery, sports science.

p68 for footbinding picture

p69 tattoos

p70 narrow waist

p71 Body building

p72 Female body building

p84 Extremes of Victorian Femininity- women possessed frail bodies-

‘Middle class women fulfilled their own stereotype of the ‘delicate’ females who took to their beds with consistent regularity and thus provided confirmation of the dominant medical account that this should be so. Women ‘were’ manifestly physically and biologically inferior because they actually ‘did’ swoon, ‘were’ unable to eat, suffered continual maladies, and consistently expressed passivity and submissiveness in various forms. The acceptance by women of their ‘incapacitation’ gave both a humane and moral weighting to the established so-called ‘facts’.

Jennifer Hargreaves 1985 Playing like gentlemen while behaving like ladies: contradictory features of the formative years of women’s sport’, British Journal of Sports History, 2(1) 40-52

Civilising the body p93

N Elias 1978/1939 The Civilizing Process Volume 1 The History of Manners, NY Pantheon

N Elias 1982/1939 The Civilizing Process Volume 2: State Formation and Civilization Oxford, Basil Blackwell

Modern people are more sensitive than medieval persons to smells, nudity, proximity.

Increasingly complex rules about appropriate behaviour.

Defecating in the street was unexceptional

Immediate seeking of gratification and expression of emotions,

Attempt to satisfy desires without restraint or regard for others

Renaissance move to more courtly manners

Sanctions and controls

Increasingly complex

Manners were markers that separated individuals and were markers of value and identity.

Medieval Carnival- prominent displays of carnality- sex food and drink. In Nantes Shrove Tuesday was dedicated to St Vomit.

Individualisation of bodies- as people construct an affective wall between themselves, smells sounds and actions become signs of individuals rather than of common humanity. Distance was created between bodies and this caused increasining individuality and awareness of embarrassment.

Chapter 3 Part 6 p150 Faulty selves, imperfect bodies- impairment, disability and AIDS

‘… disabled people become ciphers for those feelings, processes or characteristics with which non-disabled society cannot deal. As a result, these negative feelings become cemented to disabled people.’ Tom Shakespeare 1994 Cultural representation of disabled people: dustbins for disavowal? Disability and Society 9(3) 283-299

Sonntag and Illness as Metaphor is considered

QUERY SUMMARISE CHAPTER THREE ONWARDS