Modern

Diligio

Other Pages:

Renaissance (1450 CE to 1750 CE) *

Introduction *

The Spirit of the Time *

The Resurgence of Witchcraft *

Gender and Sexuality *

Children *

Bodily Functional Difference *

Mental Difference- Mental Disorder *

Mental Difference- Mental Impairment *

Belief Difference *

Forensic Difference *

Social Difference *

Ethnic Difference *

Financial Difference *

The Aged *

Early Modern to (1750 CE to 1830 CE) *

Introduction *

The Spirit of the Time *

Gender and Sexuality *

Children *

Bodily Functional Difference *

Mental Difference- Mental Impairment *

Mental Difference- Mental Disorder *

Belief Difference *

Difference *

Social Difference *

Ethnic Difference *

Financial Difference *

The Aged *

Victorian (1830 CE to 1900 CE) *

Introduction *

The Spirit of the Time *

Gender and Sexuality *

Children *

Bodily Functional Difference *

Mental Difference- Mental Impairment *

Mental Difference- Mental Disorder *

Belief Difference *

Difference *

Social Difference *

Ethnic Difference *

Financial Difference *

The Aged *

Early Twentieth Century (1900 CE to 1950 CE) *

Introduction *

The Spirit of the Time *

Gender and Sexuality *

Children *

Bodily Functional Difference *

Mental Difference- Mental Impairment *

Mental Difference- Mental Disorder *

Belief Difference *

Forensic Difference *

Social Difference *

Ethnic Difference *

Financial Difference *

The Aged *

Late Twentieth Century (1950 CE to date) *

Introduction *

The Spirit of the Time *

Gender and Sexuality *

Children *

Bodily Functional Difference *

Mental Difference- Mental Impairment *

Mental Difference- Mental Disorder *

Belief Difference *

Forensic Difference *

Social Difference *

Ethnic Difference *

Financial Difference *

The Aged *

A Note on the Sick Role *

The ‘Medical Model’ and Psychological Difference *

A Note On Some Experiences Of Devalued Groups *

Insights from Criminology *

Renaissance (1450 CE to 1750 CE)

WL Jones: ‘The hellebore which Melampus used was the black variety, Helleborus niger, the Christmas Rose.... It was in use until the eighteenth century. Thomas Willis prescribed it for melancholy. Veratum album, the false or white hellebore, is also a violent purgative and was advocated for mania and epilepsy. No doubt, the overactivity of the manic patient was reduced by exhaustion.’ P35

Introduction

The Spirit of the Time

Adams notes:

‘Purgatory, whether or not intentionally, functioned as a means of subjugation, through punishment of religious deviance and non-conformity. The spread of Roman Catholicism led to increased prosecution of witches, for crimes against God, such as heresy. The Inquisition fostered the hunt to root out heresy.’

‘The history of punishment in Western ‘developed’ countries was dominated by the Church between the fifth and nineteenth centuries, which for the first 1000 years, in effect, meant roman Catholicism. … the central idioms and metaphors of punishment were those of sin, atonement, punishment, and the long road to purgatory and either heaven or hell.’

Adams notes:

‘For centuries, it made little difference to the religious cognoscenti whether or not a person survived, died in prison or was executed; what mattered was whether the individual admitted guilt and offered penance for the wrong committed. It was only from the late eighteenth century, with the birth of the prison as a utilitarian, and increasingly large-scale, state-sponsored response to criminality, that another, essentially secular, focus developed on what happened there.’

The Resurgence of Witchcraft

Scheerenberger notes:

‘During the Inquisition (a church campaign against heresy) some mentally retarded individuals were executed, either because they were perceived as being the offspring of witches or because of their own inadequacies. The idea that such individuals were victims of the inquisition is confirmed by Reginald Scot in The Discovery of Witchcraft, a pamphlet published in 1584. He writes that it was the "poor, miserable, and ignorant people who are frequently arraigned, condemned, and executed for Witches and Wizzards" (quoted in Zilboorg, 1941, p258).’

Alexander and Selesnick note:

‘Witch hunts arose in Europe just as the spirit of the Renaissance was beginning to provoke uneasy reactions among keepers of the status quo. Feudalism was threatened by the discovery of gunpowder; the invention of the printing press permitted self-education; abuses of the Church were being attacked by precursors of the Reformation. In addition, severe plagues occurred that killed fifty percent of the population of Europe. Social institutions that are beginning to crumble cannot afford political or religious disaffection, and the Church, the monarchs, and the feudal lords grouped their forces for defense. This age had to find its scapegoat, and severe persecution of the Jews did not seem to be enough to stem the tide.’

Alexander and Selesnick note:

‘One of the most important threats arose in the ranks of the Church itself. Centuries of imposed celibacy had not inhibited the erotic drives of monks or nuns, and underground passageways were known to connect some monasteries and nunneries. Townspeople often had to send prostitutes to the monasteries in order to protect the maidens of the village. It became increasingly imperative to the Church to start an antierotic movement, which meant that women, the stimulants of men’s licentiousness, were made suspect. Men’s unsavoury impulses could no longer be tolerated, so they were projected upon women under a misogynic banner whose motto was: "Woman is a temple built over a sewer." (Havelock Ellis quoted in Bromberg 1959 p51). Women stirred man’s passions, therefore they must be the carriers of the devil. Psychotic women with little control over voicing their sexual fantasies and sacrilegious feelings were the clearest examples of demoniacal possession; and in turning against them the Church increased an already mounting fear of the mentally deranged.’

Alexander and Selesnick note:

‘The thirteenth and fourteenth centuries were marked by mass psychotic movements that terrified the Church because they could not be controlled. In Hungary for example, in 1231 a group of people appeared whose conviction it was that plagues were caused by individual sins. They marched through much of Europe singing hymns, bearing red crosses on their breasts, and carrying whips with knots from which hung iron tongs. As they passed through villages they would display their penitence publicly by whipping themselves and any self-confessed converts they might attract. This brotherhood of flagellants or crossbearers became excessively powerful, so much so that they threatened to usurp the Church’s hitherto exclusive prerogative to forgive sinners, and Emperor Charles IV and Pope Clement finally prohibited their organization. However, other groups of malcontents and psychotics continued to emerge; for example, in 1418 thousands of maniacs danced in the streets of Strasbourg in front of spectators who identified themselves with these self-humiliating orgies and thus vicariously relieved their guilt feelings about their own bodily desires.’

Alexander and Selesnick note:

‘The Malleus details the destruction of dissenters, schismatics, and the mentally ill, all of whom came under the term "witch". The book is divided into three parts. The first section attempts to prove the existence of devils and witches; if the reader is not convinced by the authors’ arguments, it is only because he himself is a victim of witchcraft or heresy. The second part tells how to identify witchcraft; the third part describes how witches are to be tried in civil courts and punished. The favorite way to destroy the devil was to burn his host, the witch. The Malleus recommends that if a doctor cannot find a reason for the cause of the disease, or "if the patient can be relieved by no drugs, but rather seems to be aggravated but them, then the disease is caused by the devil." Thus, any unknown disease was thought to be caused by witchcraft; today if no organic reason can be found for a disease it is thought to be psychologically induced.’

Alexander and Selesnick note:

The Malleus points out that "All witchcraft comes from carnal lust which is in women insatiable" and that furthermore, "three general vices appear to have special dominion over wicked women, namely, infidelity, ambition and lust." Therefore they are more than others inclined towards witchcraft who more than others are given to these vices.’

Alexander and Selesnick note:

‘It must be said that accused witches oftentimes played into the hands of persecutors. A witch relieved her guilt by confessing her sexual fantasies in open court; at the same time, she achieved some erotic gratification by by dwelling on all the details before her male accusers.. These severely emotionally disturbed women were particularly susceptible to the suggestion that they harbored demons and devils and would confess to cohabiting with the evil spirit, much as disturbed individuals today, influenced by newspaper headlines, fantasy themselves as sought-after murders.’

Alexander and Selesnick note:

‘

Alexander and Selesnick note:

Stephen O’Shea in his book The Perfect Heresy (London: Profile Books, 2000) points out that the first stirrings of the Inquisition was found in the Church campaign against the Albigensian heresy in Languedoc in France. The Cathars were dissident, pacifist Christians and the heresy was based on a belief that an evil deity existed as well as God, and that the evil deity was responsible for the material world and God for the non-material world. In 1209 Pope Innocent III started a crusade against the Cathars by slaughtering 20,000 people at Beziers (Kill them all, God will know his own’). The Crusade was followed by the Inquisition, set up specifically to hunt down the remaining Cathars.’

The belief in Witchcraft is ancient and enduring. REFERENCES. Throughout history it has been used as a method of blaming, projection, scapegoating and social control.

However, it became a major issue in the societal treatment of the poor, the mad, the feeble-minded, the socially unusual, and particularly the treatment of women, only in the this era. MORE INFORMATION FROM SOURCES.

Because it covers most of the main categories of difference, and is of paramount importance in this era, it is best to consider this as a separate topic for this section.

Rosen:

‘There can be no doubt that the Church was largely responsible for the creation of the witchcraft delusion during the later middle ages. Although witchcraft and black magic were punishable during the early middle ages, the punishments prescribed by different synods were comparatively light.’

Referenced to JT McNeill and HM Gamer Medieval Handbooks of Penance: A Translation of the

Principle Libri Poenitentiales and Seclections from Rlated Documents, New York, Columbia

University Press 1938, pp331-332.

‘The Canon Episcopi, which probably dates from the Carolingian period, considered a belief in night flights by women a delusion brought about by Satan to be fought from the pulpit’ p9

Referenced to Joseph Hansen, Quellen und Untersuchungen zur Geshichte des Hexenwahns, und der

Hexenverfolgung in Mittelalter, Bonn 1901 pp38ff

‘However, the practice of witchcraft was prosecuted by the secular authorities because it caused damge to people’s persons and property. Cases are recorded of witches condemned to death and executed, but there was no organized campaign.’ P8

Winzer notes on witchcraft:

'How many disabled persons were accused or perished is unknown; that they were implicated seems beyond question. Much earlier, St Augustine had included madness and epilepsy within the domain of the religious authorities. Now the Malleus prescribed measures to differentiate witches from normal persons: 'If the patient can be relieved by no drugs, but rather, seems to be aggravated by them the disease is caused by the devil" (quoted by Alexander and Selesnick, 1966, on page 68).

Winzer:

‘One treatise on exorcism asserted that symptoms of possession were obvious in those feigning to be mad, or those who became deaf, dumb, insane, or blind (Bromberg, 1975) said. Another expert enumerated the signs that indicated possession and included diseases that doctors could not diagnose and treat (Bromberg, 1975) does. With many disabling conditions such as deafness, mental retardation, insanity, and epilepsy already linked by tradition to the supernatural and unamenable to medieval medical treatment, the consequences for disabled individuals of assertions like these from the authorities must have been devastating.'

Winzer:

'Many of the people put to death for witchcraft were likely not possessed by Satanic spirits at all, but instead may have been the victims of neurological or emotional disorders (Tuke, 1882).'

Winzer:

'Mentally ill persons were turned over to the clergy and the secular powers, who combined to punish the "agents of the devil" by burning them at the stake or otherwise disposing of them. Mentally retarded people may have also fallen into the witch hunters' net. Sheerenberger (1982) states that during the inquisition some mentally retarded individuals were executed, either because they were perceived as being the offspring of witches or because their own behaviour seemed bizarre or threatening.' p94

Rosen notes:

‘It should now be clear that the witchcraft persecution was not a simple phenomenon as seems to be implied by such terms as ‘mania’, ‘delusion’, or ‘craze’. To be sure, some individuals involved in witch trials were mentally and emotionally disordered. Most of those involved were not. In part, their reactions were learned, in part they conformed because of fear-producing pressures. Opponents of the belief in witches and the Devil were suspected of having been duped, or at worst being witches themselves. Many people were undoubtedly expressing aggressive impulses towards others, but in another context they would have done so differently. They were able to hunt and kill witches- in the form of old women and other queer or disliked individuals- because an ideology and a governmental (ecclesiastical and secular) apparatus had been created and was available. These instruments had been created to eradicate dissent, to establish conformity, and thus protect the established order.’

Walker notes:

‘ Although Saxon law dealt sternly with sorcerers, the wholesale persecution of sorcery and heresy was an achievement of the post-Renaissance church. The early priesthood laid more emphasis on the comparatively humane techniques of exorcism, and it was the Inquisition which, in Europe at least, fanned the primitive fear of magic into the flames of the auto-da-fé.’

Walker notes:

‘Two sorts of person were especially likely to fall under suspicion of being in league with devils: scientists (In the sixteenth century science was often called ‘natural magic’ and scientists were frequently confused with sorcerers. Anatomists were in particular danger because their interest in the human corpse was misunderstood. Coke relates how ‘a man was taken in Southwark with a head and face of a dead man, and with a book of sorcerey (sic) in his Male (i.e. wallet). He escaped death by a technicality, and only the head and the book were burned; but Coke remarks that if he had been convicted he would have suffered the same fate.) and the mentally ill. Of the latter, some were men or women who shared the popular belief in sorcerers and witches, wished and believed themselves to have supernatural powers, and therefore spontaneously took part in the practices and rituals which led to their arraignment.’

Gender and Sexuality

Children

Note take as appropriate from Helfer Kempe Krugman for this era and later

Note take on Chapter 7 Infanticide of Nigel Walker

ten Bensel, Rheinberger and Radbill note that:

‘Sexual abuse of children by nonfamily members has occurred form the past to the present with few if any societal sanctions. During the Italian Renaissance, Italian aristocrats often asked for sexual favors from young boys. Prostitution involving children was considered almost universal.’

Illick notes that in 1687, Elizabeth Cellier, a midwife in England said:

‘…within the space of twenty years last past, above six thousand women have died in childbed, more than thirteen thousand have been abortive and about five thousand chrysome infants [those who die in the first year of life] have been buried…’

Illick notes using Cellier as a source:

‘The midwife was constrained from using abortifacients, or delivering secretly, or clandestinely burying a stillborn child.’

Illick notes:

‘There is evidence that child abandonment and child murder occurred in instances of bastardy, which by the seventeenth century was considered a matetr of social disgrace.

Tucker notes of the sixteenth century in England:

‘Infanticide was woefully common, and there were probably many other violent deaths by smothering or bruising which were concealed from the coroner.’

He notes that there were some thirty cases heard at the Essex Quarter Sessions in early 1570.

Bakanp30:

‘There is reason to believe that children were immured in the dikes of Oldenburg until the seventeenth century. (Stern p327)’

Marvick notes about seventeenth century France:

‘Few illegitimate babies reached the baptismal fonts and recent secondary analyses do not usually record the sex distribution of these. Bouchet, a contemporary observer, took it for granted that bastards were far more likely to be boys than girls (Guillaume Bouchet Sérées Paris 1873 IV 10). If this was accurate, it was not likely to have been determined pre-natally!’

Marvick notes about seventeenth century France:

‘A threat to the survival of the daughters of the poor is implied by the belief that the milk of women who had delivered girls was the best kind for newborn boys. (Joubert, Erreurs, p515). This would seem to be an encouragement to the abandonment of girls.’

Marvick notes about seventeenth century France that Mols noted the:

‘…curious fact…[of] a universal surplus of ‘births’ of boys over girls in Europe between 1450 and 1750. (Roger Mols, Introduction à la démographie historique des villes d’Europe du XIV^eau XVII^e siecle. Louvain 1955, p290)’

Marvick notes about seventeenth century France:

‘A feature of the French Catholic Reform movement of the seventeenth century was a deepened concern with the salvation of all souls. … Beyond an apparent improvement in the survival rate of urban female children, there is little to confirm an impression that life chances for French seventeenth century children were bettered as a result of [this]. Undoubtedly, underlying patterns for the vast majority of families were unchanged.’

Bakan p26 quotes Shakespeare- Lady Macbeth’s speech:

‘I have given suck, and know

How tender ‘tis to love the babe that milks me;

I would while it was smiling in my face

Have pluck’d my nipple from his boneless gums,

And dash’d his brains out, had I so sworn as you

Have done to this’

Macbeth, Act 1, sc 7, lines 54-59

Bakan p26 quotes Shakespeare-

‘Salisbury: His passion is so ripe it needs must break.

Pembroke: And when it breaks, I fear will issue thence

The foul corruption of a sweet child’s death’

King John, Act 4, sc 2, lines 79-81

in deMause notes p10: ‘The child in the past was so charged with projections that he was often danger of being considered a changeling if he cried too much or was otherwise too demanding. There is a large literature on changelings (references given- Haffter, and Bayne-Powell), but it is note generally realized that it was not only deformed children who were killed as changelings, but also those who, as St Augustine puts it, "suffer from a demon … they are under the power of the Devil … some infants die in this vexation …" (St Augustine Against Julian New York: ???? p117). Some church fathers declared that if a baby merely cried, it was committing a sin. (William H Lecky History of the Rise and Influence of the Spirit of Rationalism in Europe New York 1867 p362). Sprenger and Kraemer, in their bible of witch-hunting, Malleus Maleficarum, contend that you can recognize changelings because they "always howl most piteously and even if four or five mothers are set on to suckle them, they never grow." Luther agrees: "That is true: they often take the children of women in childbed and lay themselves down in their place and are more obnoxious than ten children with their crapping, eating, and screaming."’

deMause notes p31: ‘As late as 1527, one priest admitted that "the latrines resound with the cries of children who have been plunged into them."

deMause notes p32: ‘What is certain is that when our material becomes far fuller, by the eighteenth century, there is no question that there was a high incidence of infanticide in every country in Europe.’

MUCH MORE ON CHILD MISTREATMENT SHORT OF KILLING

MUCH ON SEXUAL ABUSE P50 ET SEQ

Bodily Functional Difference

Winzer:

'Witchcraft as a crime to gradually faded from the European scene. In England, for example, the penal laws against witchcraft were repealed in 1736. As witch hunts became less frequent and the very existence of witches came into question more often and more openly, the safety of disabled people increased, and their lives became somewhat less precarious.' p95

Mental Difference- Mental Disorder

Note take on Bromberg from page 43 onwards.

Allderidge notes:

‘…already by the mid fifteenth century Bethlem was spoken of by an independent outside witness as being a place where the insane might be cured…’

REORDER Bynum Porter and Shepherd for Allderidge 1985 Vol II for summary of history of Bethlem.

Note take from Alexander and Selesnick (available at Southampton Health Library)

Scheerenberger notes:

‘Although the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries are commonly thought of as a period of reason and enlightenment in Europe, treatment of the mentally retarded did not change substantially during this time. Retarded individuals who could not be cared for at home continued to be maintained in institutions similar to Bedlam. Many children placed in such facilities died; of 2000 infants moved to the Foundlings’ Hospital of Paris in 1670, 75% died within three months (Abt I, History of Paediatrics Philadelphia WB Saunders1965 p81)’

Scheerenberger notes:

‘Religious organizations ran many of the institutions providing care for foundlings and the disabled. In the seventeenth century, public support of charitable institutions was initiated. There seemed to be little difference in the quality of care provided, however. Though Henry (1941) claimed that religious residential facilities, because of ignorance and superstition were "barbarous", Tuke (1882, p 44) declared that the transition from religious organizations to state or locally operated facilities was worse: "And there was, of course, as the primary treatment, seclusion in a dark room and fetters…. [The institutionalized] were too often under the charge of brutal keepers, were chained to the wall or in their beds, where they lay in dirty straw, and frequently, in the depth of winter, without a rag to cover them. It is difficult to understand why and how they continued to live; why their caretakers did not, except in the case of profitable patients, kill them outright; and why, failing this – which would have been a kindness compared with the prolonged tortures to which they were subjected – death did not come sooner to their relief.’

Scheerenberger notes:

‘…Vincent de Paul (1581-1660)…"gathered together a few idiots in the priory of Saint-Lazare, took charge of them in person, and attempted to teach them…" (Ireland W On Idiocy and imbecility London: J & A Churchill 1877 p 292)

Walker notes in the chapter called ‘From Bracton to Hale’, covering the changes in English law, from the thirteenth century to the seventeenth, appropriate to those with Mental Difference. Bracton’s notes were written in 1226 and Sir Matthew Hale wrote his History of Pleas to the Crown which was discovered after his death in 1676 but not published until 1736. He gives over an entire chapter to the treatment of ‘the defects of ideocy, madness and lunacy in reference to criminal offences and punishments.’ He notes that Hale’s work is not only important as a record and history, but also affected later legal practice on insanity.

Walker notes:

‘The distinction between low intelligence and mental illness in English law is at least as old as the thirteenth century Statute of the King’s Perogative which dealt with the management of property.’

Walker notes on Hale:

‘Men who had been born deaf or dumb were presumed by law to be idiots, since they probably did not understand the law or its penalties.’

Walker notes on Hale on Mental Impairment:

‘Synonymous with ‘ideocy’ so far as Hale was concerned were ‘fatuitas a nativitate’ (stupidity from birth) and ‘dementia naturalis’ (in-born witlessness).’

Walker notes on Coke (1552-1634) on Mental Impairment:

‘Coke…distinguished two degrees of stupidity, ‘fatuitas’ and ‘stutitia’, the latter being less severe.’

Walker notes on Hale on Hale on Mental Disorder:

‘Severe mental illness is described under the general heading of ‘dementia accidentalis’ to distinguish it from the witlessness which exists from birth; and Hale lists various possible causes from which it may arise:

‘…sometimes from the distemper of the humours of the body, as deep melancholy or adust [i.e. burnt up] choler; sometimes from the violence of a disease, as fever or palsy; sometimes from concussion or hurt of the brain, or its membranes or organs…..’

…he distinguishes the ‘interpolated’ dementia of ‘lunacy’, with its ‘lucid intervals’, from the ‘permanent’, fixed dementia of ‘phrenesis or madness’.’

Walker notes that Hale distinguishes a third category, ‘dementia affectata’ –‘induced witlessness’ – such as states induced by alcohol or other drugs.

Walker notes:

‘What action followed an acquittal on the grounds of insanity? … What was probably a common arrangement… is the case of Matthew Clay, the insane burglar,…. Clay’s father was willing to take care of him, and the judge proposed that the father should enter into a recognisance – for the considerable sum of £20 – before a justice of the peace, which would bind him to take ‘due care’ of his son and prevent him from committing further offences.’

Walker notes:

‘Families with large houses or estates could keep a lunatic chained up away from sight and hearing, but this was out of the question for the rural labourer or urban artisan. For them the economic and psychological burden of a madman in the household must have been almost or completely intolerable.'

Walker notes:

‘…the common law was that [a lunatic] could be confined only until he recovered his senses, and since the mentally disordered were both an expense and a nuisance to their families or parish, the result must have been the setting free of many a dangerous schizophrenic during one of his ‘lucid intervals’.’

Walker notes:

‘There can have been little to choose between the penal and psychiatric establishments of this era. From the sixteenth to the nineteenth century Bethlem was under the management of the same governors as Bridewell…’

Walker notes:

‘When Bentham (1748-1832) designed his ‘Panopticon or inspection house’ hemeant it to serve either as prison or asylum.’

Walker notes of Hale’s time:

‘The constable of Great Staughton in Huntingdonshire recorded in 1690 that he had been ‘Paid in charges taking up a distracted woman, watching [i.e. guarding] her and whipping her the next day, eight shillings and sixpence’,

Other techniques of treatment were equally traditional. It is true that exorcism

and magic had gone out of fashion – at least among educated townsmen – and the public now looked to the physician rather than the priest for cures. But purges and emetics were still as popular with physicians as with Saxon wise-men, and the discoveries of the centuries had merely added more exotic poisons to our native herbs..’

Walker notes:

‘The survival or revival of old remedies is especially striking in the history of psychiatry. The Celtic ritual of ‘dowsing’ the madman in a well or spring was preserved in the medieval practice of ducking witches and scolds, and was resurrected by a Dutch physician and mystic, van Helmonth (1577-1644), as a cure for the distracted. His patients were stripped naked, and with their hands bound behind them were lowered head first into a great vessel of water…’

Walker notes:

‘[Helmonth’s] method was copied by Willis (1621-75), the Oxford physician and natural philosopher, and in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries was modified into the ‘surprise bath’, a less dangerous apparatus which let fall an unexpected douche of cold water on the unsuspecting patient.’

Walker notes:

‘ …[a charge] which was often brought against women was that of being a ‘scold’. A scold was a woman – practically never a man – who was given to persistent abuse of her neighbours or of anyone who crossed her path.’

Walker notes:

‘The usual punishment for the scold was ducking in water. By Tudor times this rough and ready treatment had been refined by the introduction of the device variously called the trebuchet, castigatory, or cucking stool. This was a seat of sorts into which the scold was strapped, and which pivoted on an axle in such a way that she would be tipped head first into a pond or river. …the immersion of a helpless person in water is known as a most effective way of reducing their resistance to interrogation …. It is probably more than a mere coincidence that it was also a traditional form of treatment of the insane. In medieval England it was used for other minor misdemeanants as well as scolds.'

Mental Difference-

Note take on Bromberg pp43-69

WL Jones notes Herbalist’s treatments for madness: pp35-36. John Gerard 1542-1612, Herball 1597. Nicholas Culpepper 1616-54 The English Physician Enlarged 1651.

WL Jones: ‘Henbane was recommended by Aretaeus in the second century. Andrew Boorde 1490-1549, in his Breviary of Healthe, said that it caused ‘frantickness’ or toxic delirium in modern terms.’

Scull: He notes that even were Foucault to be right about the confinement in France (and this is somewhat doubtful) it does not reflect the history of the period elsewhere.

Scull: He notes that the contemporary position in England was: ‘the management of the mad on this side of the channel remained ad hoc and unsystematic, with the madmen kept at home or left to roam the countryside, while that small fraction who were confined could generally be found in the small madhouses which made up the newly emerging ‘trade in lunacy’.

Scull: He critiques Foucault’s critique of Moral Treatment. P8 TO LATER SECTION

Scull: p9 Scull on madness being treated as illness exclusively:

‘I must emphasize ‘exclusively’ since the identification of madness and sickness has a long history in Western culture, dating back at least to the ancient Greeks. But for millennia, this was merely one among many competing interpretations of insanity. In seventeenth-century England, for instance, as Michael MacDonald has recently documented, ‘Individual cases of mental disorder might be attributed to divine retribution, diabolical possession, witchcraft, astrological influences, humoural imbalances, or to any combination of these forces…’ … What concerns me is the process by which some of these competing accounts became culturally illegitimate, and the medical profession acquired a monopoly over the treatment of the mad.’

Scull: USEFUL FOR INHERITANCE OF IDEAS: quoted by Scull p9

‘modes of social control exerted in the past become part of the moral and definitional context [of the present]…. This propensity to preserve earlier moral reactions means not only that much contemporary deviance is a fossilised or frozen residue from the past, but that contemporary control is constrained and oriented by the past.’

Scull: In the sixteenth century the power politics of centralising monarchs and the Church led to clashes. In England this led to the dissolution of the monasteries and the consequent loss of the limited poor-relief etc. previously provided. The urge to help continued throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries but the infra-structure had been removed.

Scull: By the last third of the sixteenth century there was a change in attitude apparent. Scull quotes Paul Slack ‘condemnation of the poor was becoming respectable; and the refusal of alms to a substantial proportion of them was widely regarded as legitimate.’

Scull: Scull notes that at the same time there was an increased desire for social order brought about by increasing population, commercialisation of agriculture with the spread of enclosures. The economic circumstances encouraged vagrancy, beggars and idlers as previous individual supports in the community failed.

Scull: Scull p13 ‘Forced to attend to the demands of internal order, the Tudor monarchs found themselves increasingly compelled to supplement religious with secular control of the poor.

Scull: In continental Europe the initial change was similar- the beginnings of an institutional approach to deviance but led to a greater level of confinement following the founding of the Hopitaux Generaux in 1656. Scull says: ‘Continental Absolutisms, with their ever larger bureaucratic apparatus and their ever greater fiscal exactions, thus possessed the capacity to continue the confinement of the troublesome. They also possessed the incentive to do so, since a volatile mass of half-starved paupers, vagabonds, and minor criminals posed an obvious threat to state stability which, given the persistence and intensity of other internal and external threats, could scarcely be ignored. While incentive and capacity were far from entirely absent in England, neither was present to anything like the same degree.’ pp 13-14

Scull: He notes that reduced external threats to the state and less need to tax to support armies meant that in England there was not the ‘political necessity of encouraging confinement as a means of disciplining the poor…’ p14

Scull: Poor Law Act (43 Eliz. C.20) acknowledged that poor including insane poor were a secular, not religious responsibility.

Scull: Act of Settlement (14 Charles II c. 12) restricted aid to parish of origin.

Scull: Defoe in A Tour Through the Whole Island of Great Britain 1724-1726 says that there were 27 gaols and 125 tolerated prisons (institutions for deviants) in London- more he says than in all the capital cities of Europe together.

Scull: Hospitals in this period almost entirely for the poor- making provision for lunatics, orphans and the aged.

Scull: Rise of the Workhouse following Bristol 1696- initially as progressive and enlightened- moving to repressive and punitive.

Scull: Norwich 1713 first solely lunatic institution

Ward for Incurables at Guys 1728

St Luke’s London 1751-

Charitable asylum Newcastle 1764

Lunatic hospital Manchester 1766 attached to existing Infirmary

Then similar at York, Liverpool, Leicester, Exeter.

None of these were large by nineteenth century standards.

Scull: Parallel ‘trade in lunacy’- private mad-doctors

Scull: Crossover between two systems- e.g. William Battie.

Winzer:

"As the leprosy epidemic in Europe began to subside at the beginning of the 17th century, many of these institutions were converted, especially to the needs of those who were considered insane. Early medieval society made no effort to conceal the insane and mental defectives from public view. They were a visible part of everyday society, and, by and large, community attitudes towards these individuals were a compound of fear and contempt, mingled to a lesser extent with an element of compassion (Rosen, 1968). Insane persons occupied a special place in society; they were seen as outcasts characterised by disorder and incoherence, particularly the most dangerous among them namely, the frenzied, the angry, the threatening, and the maniacal. (Doermer 1969/1981 1969 space 1981).

Winzer:

'Though many outcasts wandered freely through the squalor and cruelty of the late Middle Ages, society eventually reached the point where it could no longer tolerate the potential dangers posed by the insane. Converted Leprosariums became the focal points of a complex of institutions, variously termed madhouses, bedlams, or lunatic hospitals. Rarely were these places named asylums - this gentle turn was generally reserved for places of protection, retreat, and shelter, which little resembled the realities of seventeenth-century madhouses. It was not until the late 18th century that the word asylum was used to describe a hospital fanatics.' p99

Winzer:

'Institutions do not exist in a vacuum, nor do they rise without precedent. The practice of confining mad people and other exceptional persons that became widespread in the mid- 17th century constitutes the response to both their higher visibility in society and the perceived need for society to protect itself against the harm that the deviant, the defective, and all the dependent person might incur. Witch hunters had not managed to exterminate all of society's troubling elements; now alternative methods were sought, and the confined congregate institution seemed a logical solution. Unlike the monasteries and hospices that arose to save disabled persons from a vile world, the institutions which developed from the early 17th century served to protect society from the physically, intellectually, and socially deviant and dependent persons in its midst. ' p99

Winzernotes that Bethlem was founded 1247 and refounded 1676.

Winzer notes that a similar centre was established under Saint Vincent de Paul 1581-1660 in 1630 in Paris. Originally Cardinal Richelieu had begun to turn the ancient chateau of St Lazare into a military hospital, but ceded the property to Vincent de Paul who offered it as an institution for the homeless, oucast, and feeble in mind and body.This became Bicetre. Vincent de Paul also acquired ther Saltpêtrière which became in turn a house for beggars managed by the government and then a women’s lunatic hospital as Bicetre became the men’s by the 18th century. See Ireland 1877

WL Jones: ‘Le Bicêtre Grange aux Gueux: Founded by Louis IX (1226-70) as a Carthusian Monastery. In 1290 it passed to the Bisop of Winchester, of which Bicêtre is the corruption. Rebuilt after destruction in 1632. After being hospital and prison, became in 1610 a hospital for indigent and mentally ill men as part of the General Hospital of Paris.’ P134

WL Jones: ‘La Saltpêtrière: Built as an Arsenal during the reign (1610-43) OF Louis XIII. It became an asylum for beggars, prostitutes and the insane and it was the largest poorhouse for women. There were more than 4000 inmates in the second half of the nineteenth century.’ P144

Allderidge In William Lambard Eirenarcha: or Office of the Justices of the Peace, 1581 p138:

‘Every man also may take his kinsman that is mad, and may put him in a house, and bind him and beat him with rods, without breach of the peace.’

The above can be traced back in common law to 22 E.4 45- 22^nd year of Edward III- 1482. Because of the medieval legal French used, the poor printing and abbreviations of words, it is difficult to fully construe this. Allderidge tries to do this but admits difficulties. One useful reference is that it seems that the case said it was not lawful to imprison someone merely because they look like they are a lunatic,, it would be if the person was wild and he thought that the person was going to kill him or do some mischief like setting a house on fire.

Of course, this was statement of the law as it was then and depended on previous findings.

The 1482 reference also refers to a 1348 precedent allowing the beating of kinsmen if they were mad.

1714 Vagrancy legislation- provisions for confinement of the dangerously insane. First statute law.

Summary: from at least 1348 it was legal to beat one’s mad kinsfolk; from before 1482 it was legal to imprison them.

From late 16^th Century the above case law and together with the Poor Laws- when families had been reduced to penury or driven to distraction by a mad kinsman, they would apply to the Justices of the Peace for the relative to be detained, usually but not always in the House of Correction- to be paid for out of Parish Funds. Else parish relief at home.- further evidence of ‘care in the community’ type orders as well as detention. POSSIBLY MORE NOTES p326-327.

Allderidge: The Bristol Poor Act 1696- all parishes joined together in a union known as the Corporation of the Poor- to provide for the whole city, not parish by parish. Bristol was in fact the first to adopt the Parish Union system which became the model for the rest of the country. This led to the workhouses. Original plan was to establish workhouses in which the able poor and separately poor children could be employed, educated and disciplined. Old Bristol Mint purchased, and later moved to St Peter’s Hospital and renamed as such- hence bold claims that St Peter’s Hospital Bristol was first lunatic asylum and model for County Asylum system…. not necessarily so - even in the 1820s one of the governors complained that the name was misleading- it was a workhouse. First lunatic admitted to the Mint in 1707. It was recognised as the general lunatic asylum for Bristol by early nineteenth century, but in 1820 it had 436 inmates of whom only 97 were classed as sick or insane.

Allderidge: Bethlem mentioned p328

Allderidge: Bethel Hospital Norwich 1713-1724 range of founding date- first hospital solely for the insane.-DETAILS p328

Allderidge: Guys- p329

Note take on Ministering to Minds Diseased Jones in Derriford Library

Note Take on Madness in Society Rosen in Derriford Library

Mental Difference- Mental Impairment

Scheerenberger notes:

‘Attitudes toward the mentally retarded were equally harsh throughout the Reformation and justified through religious doctrine. For example, Martin Luther was without compassion for such individuals: "Eight years ago, there was one at Dessau whom I, Martinus Luther, saw and grappled with. He was twelve years old, had the use of his eyes and all his senses, so that one might think that he was a normal child. But he did nothing but gorge himself as much as four peasants or threshers. He ate, defecated and drooled and, if anyone tackled him, he screamed. If things didn’t go well, he wept. So I said to the Prince of Anhalt: ‘If I were the Prince, I should take this child to the Moldau River which flows near Dessau and drown him.’ But the Prince of Anhalt and the Prince of Saxony, who happened to be present, refused to follow my advice. Thereupon I said, ‘Well, then the Christians shall order the Lord’s Prayer to be said in church and pray that the dear Lord take the devil away.’ (Kanner, 1964, pp 6-7) This was done daily in Dessau and the changeling died the following year…. When Luther was asked why he had made such a recommendation, he replied that he was firmly of the opinion that such changelings were merely a mass of flesh, a massa carnis, with no soul. Luther explained that the devil corrupts people who have reason and souls when he possesses them. The Devil sits in such changelings where their soul should have been! (Kanner 1964 p7)"’

Scheerenberger notes:

‘Treatment of mentally retarded persons during the Middle Ages varied from persecution to benign tolerance. For example, in differing periods in various places in Europe, mentally retarded individuals were considered ro be "innocents of God" and as such were allowed to roam at will. Although they were unrestricted in their movements, however, they were not provided for and were often reduced to begging.’

Scheerenberger notes:

‘In Prussia during the twelfth century, it was common practice to confine mentally retarded individuals in jail. These were not compassionate times for any afflicted person, and indeed Prussian law stated, "Be a man laden with sick women, children, brothers, sisters, or domestics, or be sick himself, then let them be where they lie, and we praise him too if he would burn himself or the feeble person." (cited in Henry W, Mental Hospitals in G Zilboorg 1941 558-589)’

Scheerenberger notes:

‘In 1346, Hamburg confined the mentally retarded to a tower in the city wall called the "Idiot’s cage" (Burdett 1891). A century later treatment had improved only slightly. In 1497, the town council of Frankfurt am Main required that guardians be appointed for the mentally retarded: "Idiots were not only to be kept, but confined by their friends; and when means failed them, then only did municipal authorities intervene, though they occasionally assisted the families with sums of money" (Burdett 1891 pp93-94).

Scheerenberger notes:

‘Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) was said to have kept a dwarf named Zep who was "an imbecile to whose mutterings the great astronomer listened to as a divine revelation" (Kanner 1964 p6).’

Scheerenberger notes:

‘Pope Leo … retained a number of mentally retarded dwarfs to serve as entertainment. (Hibbert 1975)’

Scheerenberger notes:

‘

Ryan and Thomas quote Paracelsus, a Swiss physician of the early 16th century: ‘…his (man’s) wisdom is nothing before God, but rather that all of us in our wisdom are like the fools… Therefore the fools, our brethren, stand before us… And he who redeemed the intelligent one, also redeemed the fool, as the fool, thus the intelligent one’ ‘…the wisdom that is also in fools, like light in a fog, can shine through more clearly.’ He suggests that fools may be closer to God than the intelligent. GET TRANSLATION OR FULL PARAPHRASE OF PARACELSUS.

WL Jones: ‘Paracelsus (1493-1541) Aureolus Philippus Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim. Born near Zurich, studied at the University of Basle and with the Abbot of Spronheim, an alchemist. Spent time in the Tyrol studying ores, metals and minerals and the diseases of miners. An original thinker, considered to be the founder of medical chemistry. His writings are obscure and display allegorical, mystical and symbolic features.’ P142

Ryan and Thomas quote in opposition the views that idiots are a consequence of the evils of mankind. ‘St Augustine states clearly that fools are punishment for the fall of Adam and other sins.’ Referenced to St Augustine Migne Patrologica Latina.

Ryan and Thomas :They quote Grimm as quoted in Haffter: ‘Fairies stole a mother’s child from its cradle, and in its place laid a changeling with a big head and staring eyes who wanted to do nothing but eat and drink.’ P87

Ryan and Thomas : They quote Luther in Haffter: ‘The devil sits in such changelings where the soul should have been.’ P87

Ryan and Thomas : Luther in Haffter again: "‘…more obnoxious than ten children with their crapping, eating and screaming’, were just lumps of flesh with no souls; Luther even recommended killing them." P87 sourced to Grimm??/Hafter

Ryan and Thomas note ‘This is an early example of the common association of idiots with animality- no soul and over-dominant bodily functions- which was to become a familiar theme by the end of the nineteenth century.

Ryan and Thomas note re Luther: ‘The idea of handicapped children being a punishment for the sins of individual parents, rather than for those of mankind in general, is seen clearly by Luther. He explains the presence of abnormal children as stemming from the misdeeds of their parents- those who did not fear God enough, who bore illegitimate ?? Hafter p88

Ryan and Thomas source Cranefield on cretinism: ‘From the sixteenth century onwards there are scattered references to cretins. These were particularly numerous in certain valleys of the Swiss Alps, due to deficiencies in the drinking water. Their deformed appearance - they suffered from large goitres - and odd behaviour made them seem hardly human to astonished travellers and other observers. An account written in 1574 notes that "…many fatuous people are found…who hardly deserve to be named people, since they use no human food;…one who uses horse-droppings, another one who used hay, others who walked naked the whole winter and various monstrosities of this sort." Their ugliness was sometimes grounds for considering them as only semi-human: "They have hardly a human face, a large mouth and spittle flowing down."’ These internal quotes being Haller, a Swiss Physician, quoted in Cranefield p88-89

Ryan and Thomas, again ?sourcing Cranefield for Coxe W Annual Register (1779), a traveller’s account of Swiss Cretins: ‘ They are deaf, dumb, imbecile, almost insensitive to blows, and carry goitres hanging down to the waist; rather good people otherwise, they are incapable of ideas, and have only a sort of violent attraction for their wants. They abandon themselves to the pleasures of the senses of all kinds and their imbecility prevents them from seeing any crime in this.’ P89

Ryan and Thomas note that Coxe’s account displays: ‘The idea that idiots enjoyed their animal nature is yet another one which occurs again later. In the same account cretins were also seen as a separate sub-species of man, comparable to albino Negroes and other alleged curiosities- foreshadowing again the nineteenth century and its ethnic comparisons of idiots with so-called primitive people.’ P89

Ryan and Thomas note Coxe’s account of the views of the villagers who knew these cretins ‘’…(they) were regarded by (them) as angels from heaven, a blessing to their families and incapable of sin. A family without one regarded itself as being on bad terms with heaven.’ P8

Belief Difference

Belief Difference

Forensic Difference

Note take from Walker ‘From Bracton to Hale’

Peters

‘By 1520 there were 180 imprisonable offences in the common law. A significant number of these new offences dealt with vagrancy, breaking the peace, infamy, illegal bearing of arms, morals offences, and other similar acts..

Note take on Briggs et al Chapter 2 Crime and the courts in early modern England and chapter 3 Church Courts and Manor Courts and Chapter 4 The machinery of law enforcement and Chapter 5 Imposing the law and Chapter 6 Punishment and Chapter 7 Socio-political crime

Note take on Nigel Walker Chapter 2 From Bracton to Hale.

Adams notes:

‘In Britain, the Whipping Act 1530 first specified flogging as a penalty for some offences and marked a trend towards the increasing use of corporal punishment (Hibbert, 1996, p443). It provided for a vagrant to be taken to a market place ‘and there tied to the end of a cart naked and beaten with whips throughout each market town, or other place, till the body shall be bloody by reason of such whipping’ (Referenced to RG Van Yelyr 1941 The Whip and the Rod: An account of corporal punishment among all nations and for all purposes, Gerald G Swan p 89)

Adams :

‘Biblical references to the use of corporal punishmnet are widespread. Calmet’s Dictionary of the Bible apparently records 168 faults subject to corporal punishment.’

Scull: 1662 Act of Settlement 14 Charles II c.12 restricted aid to one’s own parish- making statute what had been common law. End of 16^th Century to end of 17^th- household relief was gradually supplemented by almshouses foundations- charitable institutions for relief of all the poor. Concurrently Houses of Correction and Bridewells use a more punitive function- See Jones 1955

Spierenburg in Morris and Rothman

Note-take

Scull: Origin of the Bridewell- established 1555 in an old royal palace for confinement of idle vagrants and beggars.

Scull: Hopitaux Generaux established 1656

Social Difference

Ethnic Difference

Financial Difference

Note take on Geremek Chapter 3 Reformation and Repression the 1520s and Chapter 4 The Reform of Charity and Chapter 5 Charitable Polemics: Local Politics and Reasons of State

Wolf notes CAMBRIDGE 1997: Major causes for the increase in pauperism 1400-1600

1/ Pestilence

2/ Climatic Change

3/ Extensive and Costly Warfare

4/ The rise of political absolutism

5/ Colonisation led to ruthless extraction of precious metals and debasement of the currency- collapse of economies- inflation and dislocation.

Wolf notes CAMBRIDGE 1997:

Hedge-creepers- people creeping along hedges trying to avoid criminalisation.

Note take from Slack The English Poor Law 1531-1782

Allderidge: Poor Law Great Consolidating Act under Elizabeth I. Overseers of the Poor- relief of ‘the Lame, Impotent, Old, Blind , and such other among them, being poor, and not able to work…’ With Vagrancy and Begging being outlawed by other acts, more and more people fell into these latter categories.

Allderidge: 1618 edition of Michael Dalton’s The Country Iustice: WHERE ARE OTHER DEGREES OF POVERTY

‘Next here is consideration to be had of three sorts of degrees of poor.

1/ Poor by impotency… The aged, and decrepit… The infant, fatherless and motherless,… The person naturally disabled, either in wit, or member, as in the Idiot, Lunatic, Blind, Lame &c…..’

No apparent statute law for responsibility for lunatics before Poor Laws, but a common law right to detain persons deprived of their reason until they recovered their senses. Dalton 1618 ‘though Assaults and Batteries be the most part contrary to the peace of the realm…yet some are allowed to have natural, and some a civil power (or authority) over others: so that they may, (in reasonable and moderate manner only) correct and chastise them for their offences…’ - among the list of chastisers and chastised are ‘any man’ and ‘his kinsman that is mad’, Later it says ‘It is lawful for the parents, kinsmen or other friends of a man that is mad, or frantic (who being at liberty attempteth to burn a house, or do some other mischief, or to hurt himself or others) to take him and put him into an house, to bind or chain him, and to beat him with rods, and to do any other forcible act to reclaim him, or to keep him as he shall do no hurt.’

Allderidge: Bethlem mentioned p328

Allderidge: Bethel Hospital Norwich 1713-1724 range of founding date- first hospital solely for the insane.-DETAILS p328

Allderidge: Guys- p329

NEED MORE ON SPECIFICALLY POOR LAW

ALLDERIDGE:

MUCH MORE LATER BUT DO OTHER SOURCES- SCULL ETC. FIRST.

DONE TO PAGE 329

Foucault in Madness and Civilisation: Led to the Hopital Generale, Hospitals for the Incurable. Then during the renaissance appeared the myth of the Ship of Fools, Narrenschiff, Stultifera Navis- not actual but myth. But people were expelled from communities as if placed on a ship of fools for socially unacceptable (madness) behaviour. Also Narrtürmer- Towers at town gates- prisons for fools. Access to churches was denied to madmen even though they were not technically denied the sacraments. P10 Madmen were whipped and chased from the city. Expulsion of madmen as ritual exclusion. Tristan arrived in Cornwall disguised as a madman- see Foucault’s analysis. Get copy of Bosch Ship of Fools Painting. Cap and bells p 16 Madness as the dejà-là of death. Madness as already dead p16 Twelve dualities p24:

Faith Idolatory

Hope Despair

Charity Avarice

Chastity Lust

Prudence Folly

Patience Anger

Indulgence Harshness

Concord Discord

Obedience Rebellion

Perseverance Inconstancy

Compare with stereotypes of madness

Earlier interpretation of Madness as Tragedy gave way to:

The Romantic:

Madness by Romantic Identification

Madness by Vain Presumption

Madness of Just Punishment

Madness of Desperate Passion p29 et seq.

Century after the Ships of Fools myths came the Hospital of Madmen- the Madhouse

Confinement succeeded embarkation BUT NOTE CRITIQUE OF SHIP OF FOOLS BY JONES AND FOWLES AND BY SCULL P6 OF MOST SOLITARY:

Scull Most Solitary:

NOTES TAKEN TO EARLY EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

Foucault Madness and Civilisation: Chapter II The Great Confinement

‘It is common knowledge that the seventeenth century created enormous houses of confinement; it is less commonly known that more than one in every hundred inhabitants of the city of Paris found themselves confined there, within several months.’ P38

The Hôpital Général had nothing to do with medicine, it was an instance of order.

In England the origin of the confinement started with an overt response to poverty and indolence - bridewells had to be set up in each area. The system never spread to Scotland. The system was soon soaked up by the prison system.

The workhouse system followed. 1697 several parishes in Bristol formed a joint workhouse- the first. To keep the workhouses from becoming hospitals, all contagious individuals were to be turned away.

John Howard investigated the confinement across Europe in the late eighteenth century and found in England, Holland, France, Italy and Spain- hospitals, prisons and jails behind whose walls were confine almost randomly those who had broken the common law, those young men who disturbed their family’s peace, those who squandered goods, people without a profession and the insane.

Voltaire’s later comment applies: ‘Since you have established yourself as a people, have you not yet discovered the secret of forcing all the rich to make all the poor work? Are you still ignorant of the first principles of the police?’

Foucault: ‘Before having the medical meaning we give it, or that at least we like to suppose it has, confinement was required by something quite different from any concern with curing the sick. What made it necessary was an imperative of labor. Our philanthropy prefers to recognize the signs of a benevolence towards sickness where there is only condemnation of idleness.’

A review of the historical coincidences of masses of idle people leading to institutions of confinement- end of Thirty Years’ War.

Beggars and other indigents hunted down and confined.

First houses of correction were opened in England during a full economic recession.

Trent: Examples from history and myth of feeble minded people include Simple Simon, and in Pilgrim’s Progress, Mr Feeble-mind from the town of Uncertain

16th century- power of church declined with the dissolution of the monasteries etc. added to a growth in population because of the retreat of the plagues, improved harvests and immigration from Ireland and Wales (Stone 1985)

Oliver and Barnes: (Stone 1985 The Disabled State Macmillan Basingstoke ORDERED FROM LIBRARY, SENT TO BIBLIO. because of the fear of ‘bands of sturdy beggars’ this led to the making of economic provision for those hitherto dependent on the Church. Poor Law 1601 was the first recognition of state responsibility to respond to people with perceived impairments. However a statute of 1388 discriminated between the ‘deserving’ and ‘undeserving’ poor. Most relief was ‘domestic’ or ‘household’ relief- essentially community care. Major changes to this did not occur until the nineteenth century. Biblical link between impairment, impurity and sin was an important social cause of impairment being seen as undesirable. Visibly impaired children were seen as changelings- the devil’s substitutes for human children. The Malleus Maleficarum of 1487 declared that such ‘creatures’ were the result of their mother’s involvement with sorcery and witchcraft. Haffter quoted as source for Luther story about disabled child. Haffter 1968 The Changeling: history and psychodynamics of attitudes to handicapped children, European Folklore Journal of the History of Behavioural Sciences 4, 55-61.

Oliver and Barnes: Keith Thomas 1977 The Place of Laughter in Tudor and Stuart England, Times Literary Supplement, 21 January 77-81

Thomas: ‘Every disability from idiocy to insanity to diabetes and bad breath was a welcome source of amusement, ‘we jest at a man’s body that is not well proportioned’, said Thomas Wilson, ‘…and laugh at his countenance… if it be not comely by nature’. A typical Elizabethan joke book contains ‘merry jests at fools’ and merry jests at ‘blind folk’. While some tricksters pranks are brutal to the extreme.’ P80-81. Children and adults with obvious impairments were often displayed at village fairs (Nicholli 1990- Menstruum quasi monstruum; monstrous births and menstrual taboo in the sixteenth century, in Nuir E Ruggiero G (eds) Sex and Gender in Historical Perspectives, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.

Ryan J and Thomas F 1987 the Politics of Mental Handicap Free Association Books, London: idiots were kept by aristocrats for amusement.

The Aged

Rosen notes:

‘One must also keep in mind that the accusation of witchcraft frequently arose because the person was old. Ackerknecht has pointed out that ‘being different is not yet being psychopathological’ and that the psychopathology of the queer and awkward people in society is due ‘much more to their ambiguous position than to their organic structure.’’

Early Modern to (1750 CE to 1830 CE)

Introduction

The Spirit of the Time

Skultans V English Madness

She references Szasz as listing reasons for admitting to asylums in France in the eighteenth century: ‘Among the categories of persons to be admitted are the young who disobey their parents and refuse to work and unmarried children with child. Although it is recognized that asylums have become dumping grounds for a variety of miscreants and indigents who cannot be dealt with elsewhere, it is seldom acknowledged that asylums were set up with the specific aim of dealing with such people.’ P4 ? in Manufacture of Madness

She reference Szasz regarding Negritude- Benjamin Rush 1745-1813 ‘Henry Moss was a Negro who in 1792 suffered from a rare skin disease called ‘vitiligo’ in which white spots appeared on the skin. The case of Moss prompted Rush to suppose that all Negroes were suffering from a mild form of congenital leprosy whose only symptom is blackness. The disease was thought to be hereditary but not contagious. The Negro was, therefore, safe as a domestic, but not as a sexual partner. Thus negritude provided the perfect diagnosis: it upheld the status quo and expanded the power of the medical profession.’ P 4 referenced to Szasz 1971 pp183-189 MY NOTES - I THINK THERE IS MORE RACIALLY DISTASTEFUL ATTITUDE IN THE ORIGINAL- IN ONE OF MY US HISTORY BOOKS- FIND.

She also references Szasz for the translation of malingering into hysteria by Charcot; the identification of masturbation as the source of a specific variety of insanity.

Skultans notes ‘… in the eighteenth century to be diagnosed as suffering from the spleen or vapours was a mark of distinction. David Hume though he was suffering from the spleen or the vapours but was pleased to learn through his correspondence with Dr Cheyne that he had, in fact, contracted ‘the disease of the learned’.’ P4 no reference.

Gender and Sexuality

Children

Walzer notes:

‘By the eighteenth century, the practice of abandoning new-born children where they were likely to be found, so common in London as to be institutionalized, was almost non-existent in America.’

Walzer notes:

‘Cases of infanticide were more commonly recorded, though they can hardly be said to have been frequent. The murderers were usually though not exclusively the mothers of the victims, and the murdered children illegitimate, though again, not always.. The willful act often tok place immediately after the birth, a kind of late abortion.’

Bakan notes the theme of infanticide in Goethe’s Faust and says p35:

‘A scholar who sought to find a single background event for the infanticide episode in Faust concluded: "The fact is that infanticide was so common in the last half of the eighteenth century that unless a specific case is mentioned by the writer himself or by his immediate friends, no one case can be looked upon as the sole source of any particular production." (OH Werner The Unmarried Mother in German Literature New York: Columbia University Press 1917 p8)’

Bakan notes p 36:

‘’In 1781 a contest was held in German-speaking Europe for the best essay on how to prevent infanticide. Four hundred essays were submitted, provoking one commentator at the time to say, "The prize question, how infanticide might be checked, has alarmed so many scholars in all the faculties that one is amazed at the large number of essays submitted." (cited in Werner p4). Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, the distinguished educator, was stimulated by the contest to write an essay on the topic, although he did not submit it but published it elsewhere. He specifically discussed fifteen cases in one chapter from the records in the archives in Neuhof.

"Infanticide! Do I dream or am I awake! Is it possible, this deed? Does it happen? Does the unnamed happen? No, not the unnamed, the name, the crime which has found expression in words. Conceal thy face, O Century! Bow down, O Europe! From the seats of justice comes the answer: may children are killed by the thousands at the hands of those who give birth to them….. In vain runs the blood of they infanticides, O Europe! Let thy rulers remove the causes of their despair, and thou wilt save their children. Thy sword has killed many an infanticide during my time, but I dhall tell you the story of one only." (Cited in Werner p7)

‘The executions by decapitation for infanticide in the eighteenth century were, as stated by one of the contributors to the contest, "without number". (Cited in Werner p7) Pestalozzi citee a letter from a minister saying, "I am discovering daily from examples within my own congregation the horrifying extent of infanticide." (cited in Werner p8)’

Bakan p39 cites Jonathon Swift’s polemic A Modest Proposal for Preventing the Children of Ireland from Being a Burden to Their Parents or Country’ 1729 where he suggests selling children for food (satirically) might reflect current assumptions about overpopulation and the worth of children.

Bakan p48 quotes Helfer and Kempe p11:

’With the coming of the machine age, however, mere babies were subjected to terrible inhumanity by the factory systems….Children from five years of age upward were working sixteen hours at a time, sometimes with irons riveted around their ankles to keep them from running away. They were starved, beaten, and in many other ways maltreated. Many succumbed to occupational diseases, and some committed suicide; few survived for any length of time." (Helfer and Kempe p11)’

STILL TO NOTE TAKE P57 ET SEQ

NOTE TAKE BRUNO BETTELHEIM USES OF ENCHANTMENT

NOTE TAKE CLASSIC FAIRY TALES PETER AND IONA OPIE

Bakan quotes Hush-a-bye baby as an example of child endangerment p60:

‘Hush-a-bye, baby, on the tree-top,

When the wind blows the cradle will rock;

When the bough breaks the cradle will fall,

Down will come baby, cradle and all.’

Bakan notes other examples pp61 et seq of child endangerment:

Humpty Dumpty,

Save the Life of my Child

Ladybird LadyBird

Tom Thumb

The three little pigs

London Bridge- reference to child immurement- especially with accompanying game.

Pied Piper

Hansel and Gretel

Cinderella

Snow White

Baba Yaga

Bakan notes p66:

‘The witch is, in fact quite real in the history of the world. The kindly old woman who, often for a fee, received unwanted and often illegitimate children is an abiding figure. … The association of witchcraft with infanticide is indicated by the fact that the German term hexe did not apply originally to human beings at all, but to child-devouring demons. (Encyclopedia Britannica (11^th ed., 1911) Vol 28, 755)’

Bakan notes pp66-67:

‘An interesting parenthetical point is the practice of punishing witches by dunking….(is) lex talionis, the law of retaliation, since one of the easiest and evidently common ways of disposing of unwanted babies was drowning. …a characteristic punishment for women who killed their babies was sacking. The ducking stool was a relic of this earlier, more catastrophic form of punishing witches.’

Bakan notes p108:

‘One of the principle effects of child abuse on a child is to create traits which lead to death in ways other than from direct injury. R. Spitz discovered that children in foundling homes, where they are fed, bathed, and so on, but not held, talked to, and bounced as normal people would be, have a substantially higher death rate than would be expected under the circumstances. (R SPITZ The First Year of Life New York: International Universities 1965)’

Bakan notes p109:

‘…children who are abused tend to develop characteristics which make them even more unlovable.’

Bakan notes p110:

‘It is sometimes a problem to get hospital personnel to care for child abuse victims properly, to overcome their aversion to them.’

Bakan p113 notes citing Helfer and Kempe p5:

‘"children have always been the victims of mutilation practices, the most common site for mutilation being the sex organs," often with the parent feeling that he is engaging in legitimate punishment for sexual manifestations in the child’

Bakan notes p114:

‘If the person who has been abused in childhood becomes the parent of a child, the likelihood of a repetition of abusive practice is great.’

Bakan notes p115:

Persons who engage in violence tend to have been victims of violence. (GC Curtis Violence Breeds Violence-Perhaps American Journal of Psychiatry 1963 120 386-387) One study found that "remorseless physical brutality at the hands of parents had been a constant experience" for first degree murderers in their childhoods. (GM Duncan, SH Frazer, EM Litin, AM Johnson, and AJ Barron Etiological Factors in First-Degree Murder Journal of the American Medical Association 1958 168 1755-1758. Also SM Nurse Familial Patterns of Parents who abuse their children, Smith College Studies in Social Work, 1964 35 11-25.)

Bodily Functional Difference

Mental Difference- Mental Impairment

Mental Difference- Mental Disorder

Note take from Alexander and Selesnick (available at Southampton Health Library)

Note take on Ministering to Minds Diseased Jones in Derriford Library

Note Take on Madness in Society Rosen in Derriford Library

Note take on Bromberg pp70-95

Belief Difference

Difference

Note take on Nigel Walker Chapter 3 Some Eighteenth Century Trials and onwards to modern day. AND OTHER CHAPTERS. Book available in Derriford Library.

Social Difference

Ethnic Difference

Financial Difference

The Aged

The Fatal Shore- note take

also The Australian Experience Hirst in Morris and Rothman

McGowen in Morris and Rothman:

Note take pp71-

Rothman in Morris and Rothman

Note take pp100-

Rothman- Discovery of the Asylum. Read with Jones and Fowles

Discipline and Punish and Madness and Civilization

NOTES FROM Jones and Fowles

NOTES ON FOUCAULT MADNESS AND CIVILIZATION AND DISCIPLINE AND PUNISH

Foucault’s commentary on Tuke and Pinel-

Tuke’s Retreat - Foucault’s treatment is full of misunderstandings and misinterpretations. Failure to understand English and specifically Quaker culture, misinterpreting the role of the Retreat doctor, and of individual self-control.

Pinel- READ WITH APPROPRIATE PART OF MADNESS AND CIVILIZATION.

The book is about unreason not madness- French title and use of words not well translated into English- what was more intended as a discussion of reason and unreason is now often quoted as a critique of the system rather than the philosophy.

They see Discipline and Punish as more factual. READ WITH BOOK.

Scheer and Groce: ‘Prior to Europe's industrialisation, most persons with disabilities were integrated into community roles, protected by ties of kinship and participation in wider social networks. With increased urban isolation, however, European disabled persons became detached from traditional support networks and thus became objects of social control (Stone, 1984). The change in the increasingly restricted position of disabled persons in American society began during the colonial period when local communities adopted the English Poor Laws of 1536 and 1601’ (Rothman, 1971; Stone, 1984).

Oliver and Barnes: INDUSTRIALISATION AND AFTER At the start of the eighteenth century, the intensification of the commercialisation of land and agriculture and the beginnings of industrialisation, the emergence of the Enlightenment all led to the legitimisation of exclusion, although it should be noted that they built on the culture and practices of earlier times. Throughout 17th and 18th century, institutionalisation increased- for an increasing number of groups. Definition of Institution from Jones and Fowles ( Jones K, Fowles A (1984) Ideas on Institutions Routledge and Kegan Paul, London)- Long-term provision of a highly organised kind on a residential basis with the expressed aims of ‘care’, ‘treatment’, or ‘custody’. Rothman (1971) (The Discovery of the Asylum, Little Brown Boston) suggests that this move from inclusion to institutions was due to the breakdown of early forms of state welfare in the face of early industrialisation, but Scull (1984) (Decarceration Polity Press Cambridge) says that the move to institutions started before the growth of large scale cities, and anyway was more pronounced in rural areas. However: ‘The speed of factory work, the enforced discipline, the time keeping and production norms, all these were a highly unfavourable change from the slower, more self-determined and flexible methods of work into which many handicapped people had been integrated.’ Ryan and Thomas 1987 p101 Ryan J, Thomas F (1987) The Politics of Mental Handicap Free Association Books London Incarceration of the ‘handicapped’ could be seen as a continuation of the intent of the poor-laws with all the advantages to the state of the institutional approach- efficiency, deterrence to ‘able-bodied malingerers’, instilling of good work habits etc.. Deterrence by ‘least eligibility’ – a pauper’s situation should be less comfortable than that of an ‘independent labourer of the lowest class’ before benefits could be granted. The workhouse was intended to be as unpleasant as possible. Upsurge of Christian morality and ‘humanitarian’ values in 19th C – mixture of altruism and conscience. Tooley M (1983) Abortion and Infanticide OUP New York noted that this spirit of Victorian patronage called into question the widespread though unexposed practice of infanticide for impaired children. Growth of ‘experts’ in deviancy management. Four sub-groups of people (Stone D 1985 The Disabled State Macmillan Basingstoke) – ‘aged and infirm’, ‘sick’, ‘insane’, ‘defectives’. Aged and Infirm- (chronic illness and/or permanent impairment) eligible for outdoor relief but could be institutionalised if necessary in special facilities, though usually not much better than the workhouses Sick- (anyone with acute, temporary or infectious illness) outdoor relief or separate incarceration, although, again, workhouse standard. Illness could not be seen as a route to better treatment. Insane- (difficulties with definition and diagnosis) ‘Idiots’, ‘Lunatics’, ‘the mad’ and ‘people suffering from diseases of the brain’ were either admitted to asylums or boarded out to families. (Scull 1984) Private asylums existed, but public outcry about standards led to a state run system starting in 1845. Roth and Kroll (Roth M, Kroll J 1986 The Reality of Mental Illness, Cambridge University Press) note that the cruelty meted out to the mentally ill in institutions may have been no worse than that found in the community.

Foucault: Discipline and Punish: Chapter 1: The Body of the Condemned

Notes changes from bodily corporal punishment to punishment of the soul- pre and post about 1800. Also has a long section on the emergence of mental ‘excuses’ for behaviour and the consequent change in judgements of judges from decisions about whether a ‘crime’ occurred to decisions on what the ‘best’ intervention was to ‘treat’ the problem.

Victorian (1830 CE to 1900 CE)

Introduction

The Spirit of the Time

Gender and Sexuality

Children

ten Bensel et al note:

‘In 1895, the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children summarized many of the ways London children were battered: by boots, crockery, pans, shovels, straps, ropes, thongs, pokers, fire, and boiling water. It described neglected children who were miserable, vermin-infested, filthy, shivering, ragged, nigh naked, pale, puny, limp, feeble, faint, dizzy, famished, and dying. Children were put out to beggary by those responsible for their pallor, emaciation, and cough; children were held in the clutches of idle drunkards and vagrants; little girls were victims of sexual abuse. Children were slaves of injurious employment in circuses, were displayed as monstrosities in traveling shows, and were exploited in diverse other modes.’

Bakan:

‘According to one estimate, six-sevenths of the population of India practiced female infanticide prior to the present century. (Cited in CF Potter Infanticides in M Leach (ed) Dictionary of Folklore, Mythology, and Legend, Vol 1 New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1949 pp522-23)’

TO 19^TH CENTURY

Bakan p31:

‘The British government in the early nineteenth century attempted to stop the custom of Hindu women in Bengal of casting children into the Ganges. The British also forced people to substitute a sheep for the child that was customarily sacrificed on Friday evening at the shrine of Kali at the great Saiva Temple at Tanjore.(no reference, ? Potter)’

TO 19^TH CENTURY

Bodily Functional Difference

Mental Difference- Mental Impairment

Mental Difference- Mental Disorder

Note take from Alexander and Selesnick (available at Southampton Health Library)

Note take on Madhouses, Mad-Doctors and Madmen: The Social History of Psychiatry in the Victorian Era. Scull- in Derriford Library

Note take on Ministering to Minds Diseased Jones in Derriford Library

Note Take on Madness in Society Rosen in Derriford Library

Belief Difference

Difference

Note take on Nigel Walker Chapter 5 M’Naghtens case and the Rules and Chapter 6

Social Difference

Ethnic Difference

Financial Difference

The Aged

McConville in Morris and Rothman

note take pp116-

Rothman in Morris and Rothman

not take pp151-

O’Brien in Morris and Rothman

note take pp178-

Note from Chapter One of Trent, 1994 Inventing the feeble mind, the history of mental retardation in the United States.

Chapter sub-heads:

Inventing idiocy

Pathologising idiocy

Constructing a place the idiocy

Burdensome idiots, the inconsistencies of productivity and special schools

From school to asylum

Conclusion

Trent: Neither of these examples gives any indication of the future demonisation of mental retardation. In fact they both show you the degree of acceptance available to people with mental retardation. However the example given by Trent from the American Sunday school unions and children's book "The Idiot" shows quite clearly the feeble minded as an object of pity. one of Wordsworth's poems, "The Idiot Boy" showed the simple minded person unconcerned about the human causes in nature. This of course played into the concerns of the Romantic Movement of the time. "By stripping our own hearts naked, and by looking out of ourselves towards those who lead the simplest lives, and those most according to nature; men who have never known false refinement, wayward and artificial desires, and false criticisms, effeminate habits of thinking and feeling." Wordsworth quoted in Trent quoting Ernest DeSelincourt The Early Letters of William and Dorothy Wordsworth (1787-1805) Oxford: OUP 1935, 295 Trent p10 ‘"Before 1820, most dependent people (but especially the unworthy) were linked by a what was believed to be their common moral frailty. Ignorance, idleness, intemperance, and prodigality, which led to hastily arranged marriages, gambling, frequenting the pawn broker, prostitution, and so forth - were associated with America's dependent population.". (Society for the Prevention of Pauperism 1818,3-6). Only the " worthiness" distinguished one dependent group from the other, and only the worthy received local public assistance. This help usually came in the form of so called outdoor relief, that is relief that respectable dependants received in their homes or in the homes of care givers.’ From about 1819 there was a distinct moved to a more centralised and institutionalised provision of relief called up indoor relief. The first groups to receive indoor relief in the magistrates words children and criminals. Trent note said that orphanages, schools, and jails, had existed before these new Almshouses providing indoor relief but that's the orphan asylum, the special state operated school, and the penitentiary added new meaning to familiar problems. P 11 Trent notes that there was a move in the early-middle of the nineteenth-century towards what he calls ‘pathologising idiocy’. P16 There was also a moral dimension. Brockett 1856 stated "the vast amount of idiocy in our world, is a direct result of violation of physical and moral laws which govern are being; but often times the sins of the father are thus visited upon the children; and the parent, for the sake of the momentary gratification of his deprived appetite, inflict upon his hapless offspring and life of utter vacuity." (Linus P Brockett 1856"Idiots and the efforts for their improvement." in a report to the commissioners on idiocy to the legislature of the State of Connecticut, May 1856, General Assembly, 37- 54. New Haven: Carrington and Hotchkiss) Dilution of efforts as schools became less specialised More land meant more buildings p33

Oliver and Barnes: Until 1871 Poor Law, compulsory detention no possible except under Lunacy legislation of 1845. Initially a legal matter, doctors became involved because of their assertion that mental illness had physiological causes, resonded to medical treatment (Scull 1984). Defectives- (initially blindness, deafness lack of speech, After 1903 epilepsy, children with ‘mental subnormality’) This group often relieved by charity Increasing incarceration towards the end of the century- second phase of industrialisation (Hobsbawn EJ Industry and Empire Penguin Harmondsworth 1968) Ideological legitimacy for above provided by individualistic ideology over communal regarding property rights, politics and culture. ‘Scientific’ support from Darwinism and Malthus Rise of Social Darwinism- excuses for not assisting the impaired.

Rothman- Conscience and Convenience1880-1900- I have some chapters; buy book. Read with Jones and Fowles

Early Twentieth Century (1900 CE to 1950 CE)

Introduction

The Spirit of the Time

Gender and Sexuality

Children

ten Bensel et al note:

‘A study in 1917 indicated that of the four to five thousand illegitimate children born in Chicago every year, one thousand disappeared completely.’

Bodily Functional Difference

Mental Difference- Mental Impairment

Mental Difference- Mental Disorder

Note take from Alexander and Selesnick (available at Southampton Health Library)

Belief Difference

Forensic Difference

Social Difference

Ethnic Difference

Financial Difference

The Aged

Rotman in Morris and Rothman

note take pp151-

O’Brien in Morris and Rothman

note take pp178-

Rise of Eugenics- Francis Galton, RL Dugdale (The Jukes: A Study in Crime, Pauperism, Disease and Heredity, Putnam New York 1877) Henry Goddard (The Kalikak Family: a study in the heredity of Feeblemindedness Macmillan London 1912) reinforced traditional myths that there were genetic links between physical and mental impairments, crime, unemployment and other social evils. Kevles DJ (1985) In the Name of Eugenics Alfred A Knopf New York ORDERED FROM LIBRARY AND TO BIBLIO Stated aim of eugenicists was to improve the race by preventing the reproduction of ‘defectives’ by sterilisation and segregation. Scientific legitimisation of existing policies of excluding disabled people by death-making, sterilisation and incarceration with rigid segregation by sex. ‘Feeble-minded women are almost invariably immoral and if at large usually become carriers of venereal disease or give birth to children twice as defective as themselves.’ In Potts and Fido 1991 ‘A Fit Person to be Removed: Personal Accounts of Life in a Mental Deficiency Organisation, Northcote House, Plymouth) Mental Deficiency Act 1913 Eugenics reached its logical conclusion with Life Unworthy of Life Many prominent socialists shared these ideas- Beatrice and Sydney Webb, George Bernard Shaw, HG Wells – not just province of the establishment. Age Old tendency to display- travelling fairs carnivals and freak shows which flourished in USA and Britain late 19th early 20th century. Joseph Merrick The elephant Man (Bogdan R 1988 Freak Show: Presenting Human Oddities for Amusement and Profit Chicago University Press Chicago, Darke P 1994 ‘The Elephant Man (David Lynch, EMI Films): an analysis from a disabled perspective, Disability and Society 9(3), 327-42

Late Twentieth Century (1950 CE to date)

Introduction

The Spirit of the Time

Gender and Sexuality

Children

Killing rooms in Romania
China one child policy
Legalisation of abortion
Garland notes:
‘Geertz (Geertz C, (1983) Local Knowledge New York) notes that among an East African tribe known as the Pokot those suffering from congenital deformities are frequently killed ‘in the offhand way one discards an ill-made pot… but often they are allowed, in an equally offhand way, to live. The lives they live are miserable enough, but they are not pariahs – merely neglected, treated with indifference as though they were mere objects, and ill-made ones at that.’
Guardian 13/10/2000 70% of children in care achieve no exam passes.

Bodily Functional Difference

Mental Difference- Mental Impairment

Mental Difference- Mental Disorder

Belief Difference

Forensic Difference

Note the chapter headed Systems of Disposal in Prins- Image and Value. Common parlance in forensics.

Social Difference

Ethnic Difference

Financial Difference

The Aged

ADD IN THE HISTORY OF TORTURE
SLAVERY AS SOCIAL POSITION
JEWISH POROMS AS ETHNIC DIFFERENCE
NOTES:
STILL TO NOTE-TAKE FOR CHAPTERS III ONWARDS IN MADNESS AND CIVILISATION.

A Note on the Sick Role

NOTE ON WILLINGNESS TO WORK ON PROBLEM BEING PART OF THE EXCUSING
‘Acquired and Excused’ Psychological and Social Impairments
This would cover most of ‘Mental Illness’. It also would include a considerable part of social behaviour disorders, so long as the people experiencing them comply and continue to comply with the tenets set down for the ‘Sick Role’

The ‘Medical Model’ and Psychological Difference

A Note On Some Experiences Of Devalued Groups

Insights from Criminology

Abberley P (1987)
The Concept of Oppression and the Development of a Social Theory of Disability??, Handicap and Society 2(1) 5-19 ORDER

Disability Also in Foundations of Psychotherapy and possibly useful later: The Formation of the American Personality through Psychospeciation and The Fetal Origins of History

MISC

Bakan p30:

The practice of putting children into foundations is evidently an ancient practice in India as well (Stern p 352)’

Bakan p30 As late as 1843, when a new bridge was to be built in Halle, there was a widespread suspicion that a child was wanted to put into the foundation. (EB Taylor Primitive Culture (5th Ed) Vol 1 London: J Murray 1913 p104.)’

NOTE TAKE Purity and Danger and Natural Symbols.
Also look at Ember and Ember
Oliver and Barnes reference Robert Murphy’s book The Body Silent on an alternative approach to the exclusion of disabled people. Murphy adopts Victor Turner’s concept of liminality.
Liminality (from Latin -?limna- edge/boundary/doorway-get full definition from Latin dictionary) means that disabled people live in a state of social suspension:
‘neither: "‘sick’ nor ‘well’, ‘dead’ nor ‘alive’, ‘out of society nor wholly in it…they exist in partial isolation from society as undefined, ambiguous people’
ORDER AND NOTE TAKE The Body Silent
Above two approaches (Murphy And Douglas) criticised in Oliver and Barnes as not complete. Other approaches also criticised.
Oliver and Barnes
‘While we are not denying the importance of either economic circumstances or culture in shaping exclusionary processes, neither surplus population nor ‘universal other’ approaches capture the complexities between the two.’
Oliver and Barnes say
‘ …cultural responses to people with impairments in non-western societies are highly variable and determined by a wide range of factors. In sociological terms, these can be divided into two distinct but inter-related categories: namely the mode of production and the central value system.’
TO LATER SECTION
Bakan :

‘When a king died to whom he was grateful, a man buried his two daughters with him, in 587b.c. in China.’ (?Stern) TO CLASSICAL

Bakan :

‘As late as 1873 female infanticide was permitted in China.’ (?Stern) TO NINETEENTH CENTURY

Bakan:

‘"It was, and still may be, the custom for new pottery furnaces in the Kiang-si province to be consecrated with the secret shedding of children’s blood." (Stern 324-5)’ TO TWENTIETH CENTURY

Bakan :